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Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2009) plastic pipe dimensions
A thermal cutoff is an electrical safety device that interrupts electric current when heated to a specific temperature. copper ground strap
Thermal fuse hdpe pipe
A thermal fuse is a cutoff which uses a one-time fusible link. Unlike the thermostat which automatically resets itself when the temperature drops, the thermal fuse is more like an electrical fuse: a single-use device that cannot be reset and must be replaced when it fails or is triggered. A thermal fuse is most useful when the overheating is a result of a rare occurrence, such as failure requiring repair (which would also replace the fuse) or replacement at the end of service life.
One mechanism is a small meltable pellet that holds down a spring. When the pellet melts, the spring is released, separating the contacts and breaking the circuit. The NEC Sefuse SF/E series, Microtemp G4A series and Hooyu H4A/B series, for example, use pellets that contain Copper, Beryllium, and Silver.
Thermal fuses are usually found in heat-producing electrical appliances such as coffeemakers and hair dryers. They function as safety devices to disconnect the current to the heating element in case of a malfunction (such as a defective thermostat) that would otherwise allow the temperature to rise to dangerous levels, possibly starting a fire.
A thermal fuse protecting a small motor.
Unlike electrical fuses or circuit breakers, thermal fuses only react to excessive temperature, not excessive current, unless the excessive current is sufficient to cause the thermal fuse itself to heat up to the trigger temperature.
Thermal switch
A thermal switch (sometimes thermal reset) is a device which normally opens at a high temperature (often with a faint "plink" sound) and re-closes when the temperature drops. The thermal switch is a bimetallic strip, often encased in a tubular glass bulb to protect it from dust or short circuit. Unlike the thermal fuse, it is reusable, and is therefore suited to protecting against temporary situations which are common and user-correctable. Thermal switches are used in power supplies in case of overload, such as in the power packs of model trains.
Thermal switches are included in some light fixtures, particularly with recessed lights, where excessive heat is most likely to occur. This may lead to "cycling", where a light turns off and back on every few minutes. Christmas lights take advantage of this effect. Flasher bulbs interrupt power when heated. Twinkle/sparkle mini-bulbs momentarily shunt current around the filament.
Thermal switches are part of the normal operation of older fluorescent light fixtures, where they are the major part of the starter.
See also
Thermistor
Categories: Electric power systems components | Safety switchesHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from November 2009 | All articles lacking sources
Monday, April 12, 2010
Thermal cutoff
Terraforming of Mars
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Reasons for terraforming
See also: Ethics of terraforming
In the future, population growth and demand for resources may create pressure for humans to colonize new habitats such as Mars, the moon and nearby planets, as well as mine the Solar System for energy and materials. Through terraforming, humans could make Mars habitable long before this 'deadline'. soap dispenser pump
Another purpose for terraforming Mars is the supposed escape of life on Earth from future destruction. Life will not be capable of sustaining itself on Earth forever. About 7.6 billion years from now, the Sun will reach its maximum size as a red giant: its surface will extend beyond Earth orbit today by 20 percent and will shine 3,000 times brighter. If there is any life left on Earth by this time, it will probably be destroyed. The chances are strong that the Sun will expand and destroy Mercury and Venus in the process, and Earth will be too hot for life to exist. However, the Sun will lose a significant fraction of its mass in the process of becoming a red giant, and there is a chance that Mars and all the outer planets will escape as their resulting orbits will widen. Earth's fate is less clear. Earth could technically achieve a widening of its orbit and could potentially maintain a sufficiently high angular velocity to keep it from becoming engulfed. In order to do so, its orbit needs to increase to between 1.3 AU (190,000,000 km) and 1.7 AU (250,000,000 km). However the results of studies announced in 2008[citation needed] show that due to tidal interaction between the Sun and Earth, Earth would actually fall back into a lower orbit, and get engulfed and incorporated inside the Sun before the Sun reaches its largest size, despite the Sun losing about 38% of its mass. Therefore, it is a question still unanswered. liquid dispensers
A hypothesis in debate[citation needed] is that Earth will be out of its habitable zone long before the Sun enters its Red Giant phase. Astronomers estimate that the habitable zone will expand past Earth's orbit in just a billion years. The heating Sun will evaporate the Earth's oceans away, and then solar radiation will blast away the hydrogen from the water. The Earth will never have oceans again. It will eventually become molten again. The habitable zone would eventually move to Mars, giving humanity some thousands of additional years to develop further space technology to settle on the outer rim of the Solar System, if humans successfully terraform and inhabit Mars. pump dispenser
Background
See also: Atmosphere of Mars
Mars already consists of many soil minerals that could theoretically be used for terraforming. Additionally, recent research has revealed large amounts of ice permafrost just below the Martian surface down to latitude 60, as well as on the surface at the poles, where it is mixed with dry ice, frozen CO2. It has also been hypothesized that there are vast amounts of ice in the deeper crust. As frozen carbon dioxide (CO2) at the poles sublimes back into the atmosphere during the Martian summer, a small amount of water residue is left behind, which fast winds then sweep off the poles at speeds approaching 250 mph (400 km/h). This seasonal occurrence transports large amounts of dust and water vapor into the atmosphere, giving rise to Earth-like cirrus clouds.
Molecular oxygen is only present in the atmosphere in trace amounts, but the element of oxygen is present in the carbon dioxide that is the main component of the Martian atmosphere. Elemental oxygen is also present in large amounts in metal-oxides on the Martian surface. Some oxygen is also present in the soil in the form of per-nitrates. An analysis of soil samples taken by the Phoenix lander indicated the presence of perchlorate, which has been used to liberate oxygen in chemical oxygen generators. Additionally, electrolysis could be employed to separate water on the planet into oxygen and hydrogen if sufficient liquid water and electricity were available.
It has been suggested that Mars once had an environment relatively similar to that of Earth during an earlier stage in its development.[citation needed] This similarity is indicated by the thickness of the Martian atmosphere, as well as the evident presence of liquid water on the planet's surface in the past. The atmosphere has thinned over millions of years as gases have escaped into space, although it has also partially condensed into solid form. While water once appears to have existed on the Martian surface, it now only appears to exist at the poles and just below the planetary surface as permafrost. The exact mechanisms which led to the current atmospheric conditions on Mars are not fully known, although several hypotheses have been proposed. One hypothesis is that the gravity of Mars today indicates that lighter gases in the upper atmosphere could have contributed to the thinning of the atmosphere, with the excess atoms escaping into space. The evident lack of plate tectonics on Mars is another plausible contributing factor, since a lack of tectonic activity would in theory slow the recycling of gases from being locked in sediments back into the atmosphere. The lack of a magnetic field and geologic activity may both be a result of Mars' smaller size, which allows its interior to cool more quickly than Earth's, though the details of such a process are still not well known.
Changes required
Terraforming Mars would entail two major interlaced changes: building up the atmosphere and keeping it warm.[citation needed] The atmosphere of Mars is relatively thin and thus has a very low surface pressure of 0.6 kPa, compared to Earth's 101.3 kPa. The atmosphere on Mars consists of 95% carbon dioxide (CO2), 3% nitrogen, 1.6% argon, and contains only traces of oxygen, water, and methane. Since its atmosphere consists mainly of CO2, a known greenhouse gas, once the planet begins to heat, more CO2 enters the atmosphere from the frozen reserves on the poles, adding to the greenhouse effect. This means that the two processes of building the atmosphere and heating it would augment one another, favoring terraforming. However, on a large scale, controlled application of certain techniques (explained below) over enough time to achieve sustainable changes would be required to make this theory a reality.
Building the atmosphere, water content
Artist's conception of a terraformed Mars centered on the Tharsis region.
The main way to build the martian atmosphere is importation of water,[citation needed] that can be obtained, for example, from ice asteroids or from ice moons of Jupiter or Saturn. Adding water and heat to the environment will be key to making the dry, cold world suitable for life.[citation needed]
Sources of water
A substantial, nearby source of water is the dwarf planet Ceres, which, according to various studies accounts for 25% to 33% of the mass of the Asteroid Belt. Ceres' mass is approximately 9.43 x 10^20 kg. Estimates of how much of Ceres is water varies widely but 20% is a typical estimate and it is thought that much of the water forms the outer or near-surface level. The mass of Ceres' water equals approximately 1.886 x 10^20 kg using the previous estimates. The total mass of Mars is approximately 6.42 x 10^23kg. Therefore a very rough estimate is that the amount of water on Ceres equals approximately 0.03 % of the total mass of Mars. As a side note, the total mass of Ceres is approximately 0.15 % that of Mars. Transporting a significant portion of this water, or water from any of the icy moons, would be daunting. Alternately, any attempt to perturb the orbit of Ceres in order to add it whole to Mars (similar to the strategy of using a gravitational tractor for asteroid deflection[citation needed] thus increasing Mars' mass by admittedly a tiny fraction but adding a great deal of heat (no small, cosmic body Ceres, see below), must account for any resultant perturbation of the martian orbit and account for prolonged geological tumult, such as reestablishment of hydrostatic equilibrium, that would result from even the softest of impacts.[citation needed]
Artist's conception of a terraformed Mars. This portrayal is approximately centered on the prime meridian and 30 North latitude, and a hypothesized ocean with a sea level at approximately two kilometers below average surface elevation. The ocean submerges what are now Vastitas Borealis, Acidalia Planitia, Chryse Planitia, and Xanthe Terra; the visible landmasses are Tempe Terra at the left, Aonia Terra at the bottom, Terra Meridiani at the lower right, and Arabia Terra at the upper right. Rivers that feed the ocean at the lower right occupy what are now Valles Marineris and Ares Vallis, while the large lake at the lower right occupies what is now Aram Chaos.
Ammonia importation
Another, more intricate method, uses ammonia as a powerful greenhouse gas (as it is possible that nature has stockpiled large amounts of it in frozen form on asteroidal objects orbiting in the outer Solar System), it may be possible to move these (for example, by using very large nuclear bombs to blast them in the right direction) and send them into Mars's atmosphere.[citation needed] Since ammonia (NH3) is high in nitrogen it might also take care of the problem of needing a buffer gas in the atmosphere. Sustained smaller impacts will also contribute to increases in the temperature and mass of the atmosphere.
The need for a buffer gas is a challenge that will face any potential atmosphere builders. On Earth, nitrogen is the primary atmospheric component making up 77% of the atmosphere. Mars would require a similar buffer gas component although not necessarily as much. Still, obtaining significant quantities of nitrogen, argon or some other comparatively inert gas is difficult.
Hydrocarbons importation
Another way would be to import methane or other hydrocarbons, which are common in Titan's atmosphere (and on its surface). The methane could be vented into the atmosphere where it would act to compound the greenhouse effect.
Methane (or other hydrocarbons) also can be helpful to produce a quick increase for the insufficient martian atmospheric pressure. These gases also can be used for production (at the next step of terraforming of Mars) of water and CO2 for martian atmosphere, by reaction:
CH4 + 4 Fe2O3 => CO2 + 2 H2O + 8 FeO
This reaction could probably be initiated by heat or by martian solar UV-irradiation. Large amounts of the resulting products (CO2 and water) are necessary to initiate the photosynthetic processes.
Hydrogen importation
Hydrogen importation could also be done for atmospheric and hydrospheric engineering.[citation needed] For example, hydrogen could react with iron(III) oxide from the martian soil, that would give water as a product:
H2 + Fe2O3 => H2O + 2FeO
Depending on the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, importation and reaction of hydrogen would produce heat, water and graphite via the Bosch reaction.[citation needed] Alternatively, reacting hydrogen with the carbon dioxide atmosphere via the Sabatier reaction would yield methane and water.
Using perfluorocarbons
Since long-term climate stability would be required for sustaining a human population, the use of especially powerful greenhouse gases possibly including halocarbons such as chlorofluorocarbons (or CFCs) and perfluorocarbons (or PFCs) has been suggested.[citation needed] These gases are the most cited candidates[citation needed] for artificial insertion into the Martian atmosphere because of their strong effect as a greenhouse gas. This can conceivably be done relatively cheaply by sending rockets with a payload of compressed CFCs on a collision course with Mars. When the rocket crashes onto the surface it releases its payload into the atmosphere. A steady barrage of these "CFC rockets" would need to be sustained for a little more than a decade while the planet changes chemically and becomes warmer.
A proposal to mine fluorine-containing minerals as a source of CFCs and PFCs is supported by the belief that since the quantities present are expected to be at least as common on Mars as on Earth, this process could sustain the production of sufficient quantities of optimal greenhouse compounds (CF3SCF3, CF3OCF2OCF3, CF3SCF2SCF3, CF3OCF2NFCF3) to maintain Mars at 'comfortable' temperatures, as a method of maintaining an Earth-like atmosphere produced previously by some other means.
Adding heat
Adding heat and conserving the heat present is a particularly important stage of this process, as heat from the Sun is the primary driver of planetary climate. Mirrors made of thin aluminized PET film could be placed in orbit around Mars to increase the total insolation it receives. This would direct the sunlight onto the surface and could increase the planet's surface temperature directly. The mirror could be positioned as a statite, using its effectiveness as a solar sail to orbit in a stationary position relative to Mars, near the poles, to sublimate the CO2 ice sheet and contribute to the warming greenhouse effect.
Changing the albedo of the Martian surface would also make more efficient use of incoming sunlight. Altering the color of the surface with dark dust and soot (likely from both of Mars' moons, Phobos and Deimos, because they are dark in color and could be ground into dust while in space and then somewhat uniformly distributed across the Martian surface by "dropping" it onto Mars) or dark microbial life forms such as lichens would transfer a larger amount of incoming solar radiation to the surface as heat before it is reflected off into space again.[citation needed] Using extremophile life forms is particularly attractive since they could propagate themselves.
Another way to increase the temperature could be to direct small cosmic bodies (asteroids) onto the Martian surface; the impact energy would be released as heat and could vaporize Martian water ice to steam, which is also a greenhouse gas.
As the planet becomes warmer, the CO2 on the polar caps sublimes into the atmosphere and contributes to the warming effect. The tremendous air currents generated by the moving gasses would create large, sustained dust storms, which would also contribute to the warming of the planet by directly heating (through absorbing solar radiation) the molecules in the atmosphere. Eventually Mars would be warm enough that CO2 could not solidify on the poles, but liquid water would still not develop because the pressure would be too low.
After the heavy dust-storms subside, the warmer planet could conceivably be habitable to some forms of terrestrial life.[citation needed] Certain forms of algae and bacteria that are able to live in the Antarctic would be prime candidates. By filling a few rockets with algae spores and crashing them in the polar areas where there would still be water-ice, they could not only grow but even thrive in the no-competition, high-radiation, high CO2 environment.[citation needed]
If the algae are successful in propagating themselves around parts of the planet, this would have the effect of darkening the surface and reducing the albedo of the planet. By absorbing more sunlight, the ground will warm the atmosphere even more. Furthermore, the atmosphere would have a new small oxygen contribution from the algae, though it would still not be enough oxygen for humans to be able to breathe. If the atmosphere grows denser, the atmospheric surface pressure may rise and approximate that of Earth. At first, until there is enough oxygen in the atmosphere, humans will probably need nothing more than a breathing mask and a small tank of oxygen that they carry around with them. To contribute to the oxygen content of the air, factories could be produced that reduce the metals in the soil, effectively resulting in desired crude metals and oxygen as a byproduct. Also, by bringing plants with them (along with the microbial life inherent in fertile topsoil), humans could propagate plant life on Mars, which would create a sustainable oxygen supply to the atmosphere.[citation needed]
Magnetic field and solar radiation
See also: Health threat from cosmic rays
Earth abounds with water because its ionosphere is permeated with a magnetic field. The hydrogen ions present in its ionosphere move very fast due to their small mass, but they cannot escape to outer space because their trajectories are deflected by the magnetic field. Venus has a dense atmosphere, but only traces of water vapor (20 ppm) because it has no magnetic field. The Martian atmosphere is devoid of water vapor for the same reason. It seems that the most practicable way to hold water and regulate temperature is building water-tight greenhouses on the surface of Mars.[citation needed] Another way to achieve these goals is building very large magnets[citation needed] and launching mirrors into orbit.[citation needed]
It is believed by some scientists that Mars would be uninhabitable to most life-forms due to higher solar radiation levels. Without a magnetosphere, the Sun is thought to have thinned the Martian atmosphere to its current state; the solar wind adding a significant amount of energy to the atmosphere's top layers which enables the atmospheric particles to reach escape velocity and leave Mars. Indeed, this effect has even been detected by Mars-orbiting probes. Another theory is that solar winds rip the atmosphere away from the planet as it becomes trapped in bubbles of magnetic fields called plasmoids.
Venus, however, shows that the lack of a magnetosphere does not preclude a dense (albeit dry) atmosphere. A thick atmosphere could also provide solar radiation protection to the surface.[citation needed] In the past, Earth has regularly had periods where the magnetosphere changed direction and collapsed for some time.[citation needed]
The lack of a protective magnetic field would also have possible health effects on colonists due to increased cosmic ray flux. The health threat depends on the flux, energy spectrum, and nuclear composition of the rays. The flux and energy spectrum depend on a variety of factors, which are incompletely understood. The Mars Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE) was launched in 2001 in order to collect more data. Estimates are that humans unshielded in interplanetary space would receive annually roughly 400 to 900 milli-Sieverts (mSv) (compared to 2.4 mSv on Earth) and that a Mars mission (12 months in flight and 18 months on Mars) might expose shielded astronauts to ~500 to 1000 mSv. These doses approach the 1 to 4 Sv career limits advised by the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements for Low Earth orbit activities.
In fiction
Total Recall, an American science fiction film from 1990 based on the Philip K. Dick story We Can Remember It for You Wholesale. ; an example of popular culture speculation regarding the terraforming of Mars.
Red Faction trilogy, a science fiction trilogy of video games, takes place on a terraformed version of Mars.
Mars trilogy, a science fiction trilogy of novels by Kim Stanley Robinson which goes into great depth about possible terraforming techniques and the consequences resulting.
Ilium/Olympos, a science fiction duology of novels by Dan Simmons which revolves around events staged on a far-future terraformed Mars.
See also
Colonization of Mars
Terraforming of Venus
References
^ Savage, Marshall T., The Millennial Project: Colonizing the Galaxy in Eight Easy Steps (Little Brown and Company, 1994)
^ a b Lovelock, James and Allaby, Michael The Greening of Mars
^ Ceres
^ McGRAW-HILL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Science & Technology 8th Edition (c) 1997, volume 10, page 527
^ Now We're There: Terraforming Mars
^ Terraforming - Can we create a habitable planet? PDF, 1,52Mb
^ "Keeping Mars warm with new super greenhouse gases". http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/5/2154.
^ Robert M. Zubrin (Pioneer Astronautics), Christopher P. McKay. NASA Ames Research Center (1993?). "Technological Requirements for Terraforming Mars". http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~mfogg/zubrin.htm.
^ Peter Ahrens. "The Terraformation of Worlds" (PDF). Nexial Quest. http://www.nexialquest.com/The%20Terraformation%20of%20Worlds.pdf. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
^ Cosmos Online - Solar wind ripping chunks off Mars (http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/news/2369/solar-wind-ripping-chunks-mars)
^ The Cosmic Ray Radiation Dose in Interplanetary Space Present Day and Worst-Case Evaluations R.A. Mewaldt et al., page 103, 29th International Cosmic Ray Conference Pune (2005) 00, 101-104
External links
NASA - Aerospace Scholars: Terraforming Mars at the Internet Archive
Recent Arthur C Clarke interview mentions terraforming
Red Colony
Terraformers Society of Canada
Research Paper: Technological Requirements for Terraforming Mars
Peter Ahrens The Terraformation of Worlds
MARSDRIVE: Colonizing Mars. Red Colony parent organization planning the future exploration and colonization of planet Mars.
Mars Reborn, a portrait of a possible Mars one thousand years from now, by Chris Wayan, 2003
How to Terraform Mars, How to Terraform Mars, 2007
v d e
Mars
Areography
General
Albedo features (Solis Lacus) Atmosphere Canals (list) Climate Water Life North Polar Basin Chaos terrain
Regions
Cydonia Planum Boreum Planum Australe Cerberus Hemisphere Vastitas Borealis Iani Chaos Quadrangles Tharsis Ultimi Scopuli Eridania Lake Olympia Undae Elysium Planitia
Mountains
Listed by height Echus Montes
Volcanoes
Alba Mons Albor Tholus Arsia Mons Ascraeus Mons Biblis Tholus Elysium Mons Hecates Tholus Olympus Mons Pavonis Mons Syrtis Major Tharsis Tharsis Montes
Craters
Catenae Hellas Planitia Argyre Planitia Schiaparelli Gusev Eberswalde Bonneville Eagle Endurance Erebus Victoria Galle
Areology
Carbonates Spherules Geysers on Mars Swiss cheese features
Mars portal
Moons
Phobos Deimos
Discovery Features (Phobos Deimos) Stickney crater (Phobos) Phobos monolith Phobos and Deimos in fiction
Exploration
Colonization Phobos program Viking program Mars Pathfinder Mars Exploration Rover Spirit-observed features Opportunity-observed features HiRISE Manned mission Mars landing Mars rover Artificial objects on Mars Terraforming
Observation
History of Mars observation Martian canal
Astronomy
Eclipses
Solar eclipses on Mars
Transits
Deimos Phobos Earth Mercury Venus
Meteorites
Mars meteorite ALH84001 Chassigny Kaidun Shergotty Nakhla
Other topics
Mars-crosser asteroid 2007 WD5 Darian calendar Timekeeping on Mars Haughton-Mars Project Martian Mars Society Flag of Mars Mars in fiction Mars Ocean Hypothesis Caves of Mars Project
Categories: Planetary engineering | Mars explorationHidden categories: Articles that may contain original research from November 2009 | All articles that may contain original research | Articles needing additional references from March 2008 | All articles needing additional references | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2009 | Articles with unsourced statements from January 2010 | Articles with unsourced statements from February 2007
Porcupine
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Species
Old World porcupine
A porcupine is any of 27 species of rodent belonging to the families Erethizontidae or Hystricidae. Porcupines vary in size considerably: Rothschild's Porcupine of South America weighs less than a kilogram (2.2 lb (1.00 kg)); the African Porcupine can grow to well over 10 kg (22 lb). The two families of porcupines are quite different, and, although both belong to the Hystricognathi branch of the vast order Rodentia, they are not closely related. The eleven Old World porcupines are almost exclusively terrestrial, tend to be fairly large, and have quills that are grouped in clusters. They are believed to have separated from the other hystricognaths about 30 million years ago, much earlier than the New World porcupines. telescopic pole
The twelve New World porcupines are mostly smaller (although the North American Porcupine reaches about 85 cm/33 in in length and 18 kg/40 lb), have their quills attached singly rather than grouped in clusters, and are excellent climbers, spending much of their time in trees. The New World porcupines evolved their spines independently (through convergent evolution) and are more closely related to several other families of rodent than they are to the Old World porcupines. Porcupines have a relatively high longevity and had held the record for being the longest-living rodent, which was recently broken by the Naked Mole Rat (Heterocephalus glaber). stock lapel pins
Quills telescopic poles
Porcupines' quills, or spines, take on various forms, depending on the species, but all are modified hairs coated with thick plates of keratin, and they are embedded in the skin musculature. Old World porcupines (Hystricidae) have quills embedded in clusters, whereas in New World porcupines (Erethizontidae), single quills are interspersed with bristles, underfur, and hair.
Quills are released by contact with them, or they may drop out when the porcupine shakes its body, but cannot be projected at attackers, contrary to popular belief. New quills grow to replace lost ones.
Habitat
Bronze cannon of Louis XII of France, with porcupine emblem. Caliber: 172mm, length: 305cm, weight: 1870kg. Recovered in Algiers in 1830. Muse de l'Arme.
Porcupines occupy a wide range of habitats in tropical and temperate parts of Asia, Italy, Africa, and North and South America. Porcupines live in forests, deserts, rocky outcrops, hillsides and grasslands. Some New World porcupines live in trees, but Old World porcupines stay on the ground. Porcupines can be found on rocky areas up to 3,700 m (12,000 ft) high. Porcupines are nocturnal.
Salt licks
Porcupines in search of salt sometimes encroach on human habitats, eating plywood cured with sodium nitrate, certain paints, tool handles, footwear, clothes and other items that have been coated in salty sweat. Porcupines are attracted to roads in areas where rock salt is used to melt ice and snow and are known to gnaw on vehicle tires or wiring coated in road salt. Salt licks placed nearby can prevent porcupines from injuring themselves.
Natural sources of salt consumed by porcupines include varieties of salt-rich plants (such as yellow water lily and aquatic liverwort), fresh animal bones, outer tree bark, mud in salt-rich soils, and objects imbued with urine.
Miscellany
From ancient times, it was believed that porcupines can throw their quills at an enemy. This has long been refuted, being the result of loose quills being shaken free.
Porcupines have become a pest in Kenya and are eaten as a delicacy.
Classification
A North American porcupine foraging for grubs in the grass
Order Rodentia
Suborder Hystricomorpha
Infraorder Hystricognathi
Family Hystricidae: Old World porcupines
African Brush-tailed Porcupine, Atherurus africanus
Asiatic Brush-tailed Porcupine, Atherurus macrourus
Crested Porcupine, Hystrix cristata
Cape Porcupine, Hystrix africaeaustralis
Himalayan Porcupine, Hystrix hodgsoni
Indian Porcupine, Hystrix indicus
Malayan Porcupine, Hystrix brachyura
Sunda Porcupine, Hystrix javanica
Sumatran Porcupine, Hystrix sumatrae
Bornean Porcupine, Thecurus crassispinis
Philippine Porcupine, Thecurus pumilis
Long-tailed Porcupine, Trichys fasciculata
Family Thryonomyidae: cane rats
Family Petromuridae: Dassie Rat
Family Bathyergidae: African mole-rats
Family Hydrochaeridae: capybara
Family Caviidae: cavies
Family Dasyproctidae: agoutis and acouchis
Family Erethizontidae: New World porcupines
Brazilian Porcupine, Coendou prehensilis
Bicolor-spined Porcupine, Coendou bicolor
Koopman's Porcupine, Coendou koopmani
Rothschild's Porcupine, Coendou rothschildi
Mexican Tree Porcupine, Sphiggurus mexicanus
South American Tree Porcupine, Sphiggurus spinosus
Bahia Hairy Dwarf Porcupine, Sphiggurus insidiosus
Brown Hairy Dwarf Porcupine, Sphiggurus vestitus
Orange-spined Hairy Dwarf Porcupine, Sphiggurus villosus
North American Porcupine, Erethizon dorsatum
Stump-tailed Porcupine, Echinoprocta rufescens
Bristle-spined Porcupine, Chaetomys subspinosus (sometimes considered an echymid)
Family Chinchillidae: chinchillas and allies
Family Ctenomyidae: tuco-tucos
Family Myocastoridae: Coypu
Family Octodontidae: octodonts
Family Ctenodactylidae: gundis
Notes
^ Parker, SB (1990) Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals, vol. 4, McGraw-Hill, New York.[page needed]
^ Buffenstein, Rochelle; Jarvis, Jennifer U. M. (May 2002). "The naked mole rat--a new record for the oldest living rodent". Science of aging knowledge environment 2002 (21): pe7. doi:10.1126/sageke.2002.21.pe7. PMID 14602989.
^ Morrisson, Philip; Morrisson, Phyllis (March 2001). "Wonders: The Needy Porcupine". Scientific American. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000B3425-FD09-1C70-84A9809EC588EF21. Retrieved 29 June 2007.
^ Olson, Rich; Andrea M. Lewis (May 1999) (PDF). Porcupine Ecology and Damage Management Techniques for Rural Homeowners. University of Wyoming, Cooperative Extension Service. p. 4. http://ces.uwyo.edu/PUBS/B1073.pdf. Retrieved 29 June 2007.
^ Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1823 Edition. Page 501. Google Book Search
^ Goodwin, Thomas Shepard. Natural History, a Manual of Zoology. New York, 1865. Page 78. Google Book Search
^ "Porcupines raise thorny questions in Kenya". BBC News. August 19, 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4157330.stm. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
External links
Look up porcupine in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Hystricidae
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Porcupine
Porcupines: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation
"Resource Cards: What About Porcupines?" Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Porcupine control in the western states hosted by the UNT Government Documents Department
Porcupine Tracks: How to identify porcupine tracks in the wild
Categories: Rodents | Hystricognath rodents | PorcupinesHidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing page number citations | Pages containing cite templates with deprecated parameters
Magnetic core memory
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History
Frederick Viehe claimed the first patent of the magnetic core memory in 1947, having developed the device in his home laboratory. Separately, substantial work in the field was carried out by the Shanghai-born American physicists, An Wang and Way-Dong Woo, who created the pulse transfer controlling device in 1949. The name referred to the way that the magnetic field of the cores could be used to control the switching of current in electro-mechanical systems. Wang and Woo were working at Harvard University's Computation Laboratory at the time, but unlike MIT, Harvard was not interested in promoting inventions created in their labs. Instead Wang was able to patent the system on his own while Woo took ill.
Jay Forrester's group, working on the Whirlwind project at MIT, became aware of this work. This machine required a fast memory system for realtime flight simulator use. At first, Williams tubes (more accurately, Williams-Kilburn tubes) a storage system based on cathode ray tubes were used, but these devices were always temperamental and unreliable. directv remote control
Two key inventions led to the development of magnetic core memory in 1951, which enabled the development of computers as we know them. The first, An Wang's, was the write-after-read cycle, which solved the puzzle of how to use a storage medium in which the act of reading was also an act of erasure. The second, Jay Forrester's, was the coincident-current system, which enabled a small number of wires to control a large number of cores (see Description section below for details). zenith vcr
Forrester's coincident-current system required one of the wires to be run at 45 degrees to the cores, which proved impossible to wire by machine, so that core arrays had to be assembled by workers with fine motor control under microscopes. Initially, garment workers were used. jumbo remote control
It was during the early 50s that Seeburg developed the use of this coincident current ferrite core memory storage in the 'Tormat' memory of its new range of jukeboxes, starting with the V200 released in 1955. Development work was completed in 1953.
By the late 1950s industrial plants had been set up in the Far East to build core. Inside, hundreds of workers strung cores for low pay. This lowered the cost of core to the point where it became largely universal as main memory by the early 1960s, replacing both the low-cost and low-performance drum memory as well as the high-cost and high-performance systems using vacuum tubes, later transistors, as memory. Certain manufacturers also employed Scandinavian seamstresses who had been laid off due to mechanization of the textile industry.
The cost of core memory declined sharply over the lifetime of the technology: costs began at roughly US$1.00 per bit and eventually approached roughly US$0.01 per bit. Core was in turn replaced by integrated silicon RAM chips in the 1970s.
Dr. Wang's patent was not granted until 1955, and by that time core was already in use. This started a long series of lawsuits, which eventually ended when IBM paid Wang several million dollars to buy the patent outright. Wang used the funds to greatly increase the size of Wang Laboratories which he co-founded with Dr. Ge-Yao Chu, a school mate from China.
Core memory was part of a family of related technologies, now largely forgotten, which exploited the magnetic properties of materials to perform switching and amplification. By the 1950s vacuum-tube electronics was well-developed and very sophisticated, but tubes had a limited lifetime, used a lot of power, and their operating characteristics changed in value over their life. Magnetic devices had many of the virtues of the transistor and solid-state devices that would replace them, and saw considerable use in military applications. A notable example was the portable (truck-based) MOBIDIC computer developed by Sylvania for the United States Army Signal Corps in the late 1950s. Core memory was non-volatile: the contents of memory were not lost if the power supply was interrupted or the software crashed.
Description
How core memory works
The most common form of core memory, X/Y line coincident-current used for the main memory of a computer, consists of a large number of small ferrite (ferromagnetic ceramic) rings, cores, held together in a grid structure (each grid called a plane), with wires woven through the holes in the cores' middle. In early systems there were four wires, X, Y, Sense and Inhibit, but later cores combined the latter two wires into one Sense/Inhibit line. Each ring stores one bit (a 0 or 1). One bit in each plane could be accessed in one cycle, so each machine word in an array of words was spread over a stack of planes. Each plane would manipulate one bit of a word in parallel, allowing the full word to be read or written in one cycle.
Core relies on the hysteresis of the magnetic material used to make the rings. Wires that pass through the cores create magnetic fields. Only a magnetic field greater than a certain intensity ("select") can cause the core to change its magnetic polarity. To select a memory location, one of the X and one of the Y lines are driven with half the current ("half-select") required to cause this change. Only the combined magnetic field generated where the X and Y lines cross is sufficient to change the state; other cores will see only half the needed field, or none at all. By driving the current through the wires in a particular direction, the resulting induced field forces the selected core's magnetic flux to circulate in one direction or the other (clockwise or counterclockwise). One direction is a stored 1, while the other is a stored 0.
Close-up of a core plane similar to the one shown at top. The distance between the rings is roughly 1 mm (0.04 in). The green horizontal wires are X; the Y wires are dull brown and vertical, toward the back. The sense wires are diagonal, colored orange, and the inhibit wires are vertical twisted pairs.
Reading and writing
Reading from core memory is somewhat complex. Basically the read operation consists of doing a "flip to 0" operation to the bit in question, that is, driving the selected X and Y lines in the direction that causes the core to flip to whatever polarity the machine considers to be zero. If the core was already in the 0 state, nothing will happen. However if the core was in the 1 state it will flip to 0. If this flip occurs, a brief current pulse is induced into the Sense line, saying, in effect, that the memory location used to hold a 1. If the pulse is not seen, that means no flip occurred, so the core must have already been in the 0 state. Note that every read forces the core in question into the 0 state, so reading is destructive, which is one of the attributes of core memory.
Writing is similar in concept, but always consists of a "flip to 1" operation, relying on the memory already having been set to the 0 state in a previous read. For the write operation, the current in the X and Y lines goes in the opposite direction as it did for the read operation. If the core in question is to hold a 1, then the operation proceeds normally and the core flips to 1. However if the core is to instead hold a zero, the same amount of current as is used on the X and Y lines is also sent into the Inhibit line, which drops the combined field from the X, Y and Inhibit lines to half of the field needed to flip the core magnetization state. This leaves the core in the 0 state.
Note that the Sense and Inhibit wires are used one after the other, never at the same time. For this reason later core systems combined the two into a single wire, and used circuitry in the memory controller to switch the duty of the wire from Sense to Inhibit.
A fundamental principle of core memory is that each read must be followed immediately by a write, to restore the value that is always destroyed by the read operation. Many computers began to include instructions that took advantage of this fact; if a location was going to be read, changed and re-written (for example by an increment operation), the computer would ask the memory controller to do the read, but then signal it to pause before doing the write that would normally follow. Once the increment instruction was complete the controller would be unpaused, and the usual write would occur, but using the new value. For certain types of operations, this effectively doubled the performance.
Other forms of core memory
Word line core memory was often used to provide register memory. This form of core memory typically wove three wires through each core on the plane, word read, word write, and bit sense/write. To read or clear words, the full current is applied to one or more word read lines; this clears the selected cores and any that flip induce voltage pulses in their bit sense/write lines. For read, normally only one word read line would be selected; but for clear, multiple word read lines could be selected while the bit sense/write lines ignored. To write words, the half current is applied to one or more word write lines, and half current is applied to each bit sense/write line for a bit to be set. For write, multiple word write lines could be selected. This offered a performance advantage over X/Y line coincident-current in that multiple words could be cleared or written with the same value in a single cycle. A typical machine's register set usually used only one small plane of this form of core memory.
Another form of core memory called core rope memory provided read-only storage. In this case, the cores were simply used as transformers; no information was actually stored magnetically within the individual cores. An example was the Apollo Guidance Computer used for the moon landings.
Physical characteristics
The performance of early core memories can be characterized in today's terms as being very roughly comparable to a clock rate of 1 MHz (equivalent to early 1980s home computers, like the Apple II and Commodore 64). Early core memory systems had cycle times of about 6 s, which had fallen to 1.2 s by the early 1970s, and by the mid-70s it was down to 600 ns (0.6 s). Everything possible was done in order to increase access, including the simultaneous use of multiple grids of core, each storing one bit of a data word. For instance a machine might use 32 grids of core with a single bit of the 32-bit word in each one, and the controller could access the entire 32-bit word in a single read/write cycle.
Core memory is non-volatile storage it can retain its contents indefinitely without power. It is also relatively unaffected by EMP and radiation. These were important advantages for some applications like first generation industrial programmable controllers, military installations and vehicles like fighter aircraft, as well as spacecraft, and led to core being used for a number of years after availability of semiconductor MOS memory (see also MOSFET). For example, the Space Shuttle flight computers initially used core memory, which preserved the contents of memory even through the Challenger's explosion and subsequent plunge into the sea in 1986.
A characteristic of core was that it is current-based, not voltage-based. The "half select current" was typically about 400 mA for later, smaller, faster cores. Earlier, larger cores required more current.
Another characteristic of core is that the hysteresis loop was temperature sensitive: the proper half select current at one temperature is not the proper half select current at another temperature. So the memory controllers would include temperature sensors (typically a thermistor) to adjust the current levels correctly for temperature changes. An example of this is the core memory used by Digital Equipment Corporation for their PDP-1 computer; this strategy continued through all of the follow-on core memory systems built by DEC for their PDP line of air-cooled computers. Another method of handling the temperature sensitivity was to enclose the magnetic core "stack" in a temperature controlled oven. Examples of this are the heated air core memory of the IBM 1620 (which could take up to 30 minutes to reach operating temperature, about 106 F, 41 C) and the heated oil bath core memory of the IBM 7090, early IBM 7094s, and IBM 7030.
It is sometimes wondered why the core was heated instead of cooled. This was because the primary requirement was a consistent temperature, and it was easier (and cheaper) to maintain a constant temperature well above room temperature than one at or below it.
In 1980, the price of a 16 kW (kiloword, equivalent to 32kB) core memory board that fitted into a DEC Q-bus computer was around USD 3000. At that time, core array and supporting electronics fit on a single printed circuit board about 25 x 20 cm in size, the core array was mounted a few mm above the PCB and was protected with a metal or plastic plate.
Diagnosing hardware problems in core memory required time-consuming diagnostic programs to be run. While a quick test checked if every bit could contain a one and a zero, these diagnostics tested the core memory with worst-case patterns and had to run for several hours. As most computers had just a single core memory board, these diagnostics also moved themselves around in memory, making it possible to test every bit. In many occasions, errors could be resolved by gently tapping the printed circuit board with the core array on a table. This slightly changed the position of the cores to the wires running through and could fix the problem. The procedure was seldom needed, as core memory proved to be very reliable compared to other computer components of the day.
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Core memory
Delay line memory
Core dump
Core rope memory
Twistor memory
Bubble memory
Thin film memory
MRAM
Ferroelectric RAM
Electronic Calculators Some early desktop models used magnetic core memory.
References
^ Edwin D. Reilly, "Milestones in computer science and information technology", Greenwood Press: Westport, CT, 2003, p. 164, ISBN 1573565210
Patents
U.S. Patent 2,667,542 "Electric connecting device" (matrix switch with iron cores), filed September 1951, issued January 1954
U.S. Patent 2,708,722 "Pulse transfer controlling devices", An Wang filed October 1949, issued May 1955
U.S. Patent 2,736,880 "Multicoordinate digital information storage device" (coincident-current system), Jay Forrester filed May 1951, issued February 28, 1956
U.S. Patent 3,161,861 "Magnetic core memory" (improvements) Ken Olsen filed November 1959, issued December 1964
U.S. Patent 4,161,037 "Ferrite core memory" (automated production), July 1979
U.S. Patent 4,464,752 "Multiple event hardened core memory" (radiation protection), August, 1984
External links
Interactive Java Tutorial - Magnetic Core Memory National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
Core Memory at Columbia University
Navy Manual
Core Memory on the PDP-11
Core memory and other early memory types accessed April 15, 2006
Coincident Current Ferrite Core Memories Byte magazine, July 1976
Casio AL-1000 calculator Shows close-ups of the magnetic core memory in this desktop electronic calculator from the mid-1960s.
Still used core memory in multiple devices in a German computer museum
A 110-Nanosecond Ferrite Core Memory
v d e
Magnetic storage media
Wire (1898) Tape (1928) Drum (1932) Ferrite core (1949) Hard disk (1956) Stripe card (1956) MICR (1956) Thin film (1962) CRAM (1962) Twistor (~1968) Floppy disk (1969) Bubble (~1970) MRAM (1995) Racetrack (2008)
Categories: Computer memory | Non-volatile memory
The Selmer Company
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www.selmer.fr
The Selmer Company was a manufacturer of musical instruments started in Paris, France in the early 1900s. Selmer was known for its high-quality woodwind instruments, especially saxophones and clarinets. The Selmer brand was preferred by many well-known jazz artists such as Django Reinhardt, John Coltrane, Paul Desmond, Benny Goodman, Aaron Steinberg, Coleman Hawkins, Louis Armstrong, and Harry James.
Selmer Industries, the parent company of The Selmer Company, acquired the Steinway Musical Properties company, the parent company of piano manufacturer Steinway & Sons, in 1995 and changed its name to Steinway Musical Instruments. In 2003 Steinway merged The Selmer Company with another subsidiary, the C.G. Conn Company (makers of brass instruments), to form Conn-Selmer. airgun hunting
For information on the current company, see Conn-Selmer. custom dune buggy
Contents deer feeder
1 History
1.1 Selmer UK
1.2 Selmer Guitars
2 Historical list of Selmer Instruments
2.1 Clarinets - Paris
2.2 Clarinets - United States
2.3 Flutes
2.4 Guitars
2.5 Oboes
2.6 Saxophones - Paris
2.7 Saxophones - United States
2.8 Brass Instruments
2.8.1 Trumpets
2.8.2 Trombones
2.9 Other instruments
3 Trivia
4 References/External Links
5 References
//
History
In the late 1800s, brothers Alexandre and Henri Selmer graduated from the Paris Conservatory as clarinetists. At the time, musical instruments and accessories were primarily hand made, and professional musicians found it necessary to acquire skills allowing them to make their own accessories and repair and modify their own instruments. By 1900 Henri had gained a reputation for his reeds and mouthpieces and he opened a store and repair shop in Paris. He soon expanded into the construction of clarinets.
Meanwhile, Alexandre had moved to the United States, where he performed as principal clarinetist with the Boston Symphony Orchestra, the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra from 1895 to 1910. Soon after Henri began making clarinets, Alexandre opened a store in New York City to sell his brother's instruments and accessories in the U.S. The Selmer line of products gained a great boost in reputation and sales by winning a gold medal for their clarinets at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis, Missouri. In 1918 Alexandre returned to Paris to assist in the family business, leaving their U.S. interests in the hands of his employee George Bundy. Bundy expanded the retail and distribution component of the business, carrying instruments from other companies such as the Vincent Bach Corporation, Martin and Ludwig-Musser.
Bundy quickly decided to expand into flute manufacturing, and hired George W. Haynes (from a family of well-known flute makers) to design the Selmer flute. Selmer flute manufacturing briefly moved to Boston, Massachusetts, home to several reputable flute makers, to draw on the existing skilled labor pool there. Bundy also hired Kurt Gemeinhardt, a young craftsman from Germany with a growing reputation, to assist in the design of Selmer flutes.
By the early 1920s, Bundy was finding New York City too cramped for the growing company, and he moved the manufacturing facilities to Elkhart, Indiana. Elkhart was already home to several other instrument makers, and had a skilled labor pool from which to draw workers. The New York facility remained in operation as a retail store and distributor until 1951.
In 1927 or 1928 (sources differ) Bundy purchased the American business from the Selmer brothers. The American business was named Selmer USA. Though technically independent, the Henri Selmer Co. of Paris and Selmer USA remained the exclusive distributors of each other's products. The French company concentrated on high quality, expensive instruments for the professional musician, while the American company concentrated on mass-produced, less-expensive models for students and amateur musicians. Many of the American instruments were produced under the Bundy brand name, started in 1941.
Growing industrial expertise in plastics throughout the 1940s eventually spread to the still-small world of musical instruments. In 1948 Selmer USA produced a commercially successful molded-plastic clarinet, called the "Bundy Resonite 1400." World War II brought a halt to the manufacture and import of the Paris instruments, and for a brief time (1944-early 1946) Selmer USA plants were used almost exclusively for export packing as part of the war effort.
The baby boom and an increase in school music programs led to a substantial increase in the band and orchestral instrument business throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Taking advantage of this growth spurt, Selmer began acquiring other instrument manufacturers, including The Vincent Bach Corporation (brass instruments) in 1961, Glasel String Instrument Service (violins), the Ludwig-Musser Drum Company, and the Lesher Woodwind Company (oboes and bassoons) in 1967.
Selmer UK
A semi-independent branch of Selmer for the United Kingdom was created in 1928 under the leadership of two brothers, Ben and Lew Davis. They concentrated primarily on licensing, importing and distribution rather than manufacturing, and by 1939 had grown to become the largest company in the British musical instrument industry.
In 1935 Selmer UK began producing sound reinforcement systems under the Selmer name. They expanded their manufacturing facilities by purchasing another P.A. company called RSA in 1946. By 1951 they were manufacturing electric organs and in 1955 they gained the exclusive licensing rights to make Lowrey organs and Leslie organ speakers for the UK. They were also the primary importers and distributors for Hfner guitars, a well-known German guitar company, from the early 1950s through the early 1970s. In 1967, Hfner actually produced a small range of semi-acoustic and acoustic guitars for Selmer UK These were badged with the Selmer logo and most had a Selmer "lyre" tailpiece. Model names were the Astra, Emperor, Diplomat, Triumph and Arizona Jumbo.
With the growth of skiffle music and the arrival of rock and roll in the mid-1950s, Selmer UK began producing guitar and bass amplifiers. In the early 1960s, despite Selmer's apparent market domination, The Shadows' and The Beatles' endorsement of Vox amplifiers relegated Selmer guitar amplifiers to a distant second place in sales. The management of the company made various luke warm attempts to gain endorsement from aspiring musicians but became increasingly distant from the developments in pop culture from the mid 1960s considering that its role was to support "real" or established professional musicians and not the headliners of the pop industry. This was the beginning of the end for Selmer UK.
By the early 1970s Selmer UK had been purchased by Chicago Musical Instruments, then the parent company of Gibson Guitars, which Selmer was distributing in the UK. By this time Marshall guitar amplifiers had cornered the market, and the Selmer manufacturing facility was an expensive drain on resources. During this period, the Selmer range of Treble & Bass 50 & 100 valve amplifiers appeared to be stylistic relics from pre-1959 and the decision was made to move the manufacturing facility to a disused brush and coconut matting works dating from 1914, based in rural Essex. The factory which purchased from Music and Plastic Industries. This was a disaster, coupled as it was to an uninspiring reworking of the Selmer range of speaker cabinets and the introduction of a poorly designed range of solid state power amplifiers.
After being passed around several other owners, Selmer once again found itself owned by the Gibson Guitar parent company, this time through a holding company called Norlin Music USA. The marketing policy adopted by management involved allowing its distributors to arrange short term loans of Gibson instruments on a trial basis. This was considered an excellent marketing ploy had it been controlled but the reality of the situation was that instrument loans were made freely available to any musician and bands who made a request. The consequences were that these very expensive musical instruments were used, damaged, and returned unsold to the UK warehouse, where attempts were made to repair them with the limited facilities on hand, as the distribution agreement with the manufacturing base in Kalamazoo, Michigan did not allow for the return of defective items. At one time in 1977 there were over one thousand damaged, broken and disassembled Gibson guitars stored in an unheated warehouse in Braintree, Essex.
The factory in Braintree also developed the manufacturing of Lowrey keyboards from KD kits exported from the Chicago manufacturing base of CMI. These instruments were technically advanced but the build quality was poor compared with keyboards which were just beginning to reach the UK and European markets from Japan. To supplement earnings the company took the decision to import a low cost Italian designed organ marketed as a Selmer product which was distributed in large numbers by catalogue sales. Again the return rate, this time due to damage in transit, was significant. In spite of a rebranding as Norlin Music (UK) the management of the company failed to address the key factors preferring to effect a range of cost cutting measures. In 1976 Norlin Music Inc., faced with mounting debts, began dismantling Selmer UK piece by piece, until the only facility was a repair center for Lowrey organs with a single employee. This shut down in the early 1980s.
Despite being largely unknown in the U.S., Selmer guitar amplifiers from the early 1960s have begun to gain a reputation as vintage collectibles among valve amplifier enthusiasts.
Selmer Guitars
In 1932 Selmer partnered with the Italian guitarist and luthier Mario Maccaferri to produce a line of acoustic guitars based on Maccaferri's unorthodox design. Although Maccaferri's association with Selmer ended in 1934, the company continued to make several models of this guitar until 1952. The guitar was closely associated with famed jazz guitarist Django Reinhardt. (see also Selmer-Maccaferri Guitar and About Selmer-Maccaferri guitars)
Historical list of Selmer Instruments
For a list of instrument models currently in production, see Conn-Selmer.
Clarinets - Paris
no model name, often called "Brvet" (1900s, 10s and 20s)
no model name, often called "Dpos" (1930s, 40s and 50s) These are often differentiated by the letter at the beginning of the serial number and referred to as "K-series", "L-series", "M-series" or "N-series". A "Dpos" from the N-series will have characteristics very different from those of one from the K-series. The Brvet mark and the Dpos mark were never meant to describe or label the clarinet; they are just French terms meaning, roughly, "certified" and "registered", respectively.
Radio Improved or RI (ca. 1931-1934)
Balanced Tone or BT (ca. 1935-1939)
Master Model (metal clarinet) (1927-ca.1939)
55 (ca. 1939)
Centered Tone (ca. 1954-1960) large bore clarinets.
Series 9 (1960s, 70s and 80s) large bore clarinets.
Series 9* (1960s) with undercut tone holes and reducing bore diameter.
Series 10 (1970s - cylindrical bore)
Series 10G (1970s and 80s {and 90s?}) Designed by Anthony Gigliotti. In the December 1999 issue of The Clarinet, Gigliotti wrote: "The first time I went to the Buffet factory in France was in 1953 and I remember trying 55 Bb clarinets. After selecting the two best ones I then spent countless hours with Hans Moennig tuning and voicing them until I could finally try them in the orchestra. My reason for becoming involved with the Selmer Company was to make it possible for a student or professional to buy an instrument that didn't need all that work and it has resulted in the series 10G which was based on my Moennigized Buffet which I played for 27 years."
Series 10S (1970s and 80s {and 90s?})
Series 10S II (1970s and 80s {and 90s?}) Smaller bore than 10S.
Recital (1980s-20**)
Odysse
Arthea
Prologue I and II
St. Louis
Signature
Artys
Privilge
Selmer Paris sold less-expensive clarinets under the names Barbier, Bundy (Paris) and Raymond until ca. 1935, after which they focused exclusively on professional clarinets.
Note: Selmer Paris harmony clarinets (sizes other than B and A soprano clarinet) are mostly called by their model number rather than a name, but there are, for example, RI bass clarinets and Series 9 alto and bass clarinets.
Clarinets - United States
Bundy (resonite) plastic
Signet (plastic construction)
Signet 100 (a high quality wood clarinet)
Signet 100 Special (like 100, with slightly better wood and more care with keys)
Signet Soloist (The best quality grenadilla wood intermediate/professional clarinet made in the USA by Selmer)
Omega
CL201, CL211. Intermediate grenadilla clarinet.
CL301, CL311. Composite clarinet, small bore.
CL601 (composite body)
CL701 (prelude series, made by conn-selmer, the parent company)
(need list)
Flutes
(need list)
Bundy
bought Emerson flutes
Guitars
(need list)
Maltiao
Guitar with a special 7 strings. Selmer decided to make a guitar for chamber music.$950.00-any price.
X8J
Series 666 - Selmer's best guitar in production
Signet series ended in 1970 (rare) especially 12 strings.
They are usually custom made guitars for professionals. Their cost are depending on wood and upgrades like tuners, frets, size,etc...
Oboes
Lesher
Selmer
Bundy
Signet
Omega
Saxophones - Paris
Modele 22 (19221925)
Modele 26 (19261929)
Super "Cigar Cutter" (19301932)
Super (19321933)
Radio Improved (19341935)
Balanced Action (19361947)
Super Action (19481953)
Mark VI (19541973)
Mark VII (19741980)
Selmer Super Action 80 (19801985)
Super Action 80 Serie II (1985-)
Super Action 80 Serie III (1994-)
Reference 54 / Reference 36 (2000-)
Saxophones - United States
An American Selmer Bundy II Alto Saxophone.
(need dates of manufacture)
Bundy
Signet
Aristocrat (Currently Taiwanese)
La Voix (Currently Taiwanese)
For a list of instrument models currently in production, see Conn-Selmer.
Brass Instruments
In 1931, Selmer acquired the brass manufacturer 'Millereau' brass in Paris. In 1963, Selmer held exclusive distribution rights in France for the USA brand Vincent-Bach brass instruments.
Trumpets
Armstrong/Balanced (1933)
K-Modified (1954)
Deville (1962)
Radial 2 (1968)
Series 700 (1977)
Chorus
Concept
Invicta C/Bb model
Signa
Trombones
Special
K-Modified
Bolero (1962)
Largo (1962)
Other instruments
Piano accordion Invicta and Invicta lugano
English Horn (Cor Anglais)- Selmer Paris
Trivia
Lists of miscellaneous information should be avoided. Please relocate any relevant information into appropriate sections or articles. (January 2009)
In 1929 the H. Selmer Company purchased the workshop of Adolphe Sax, inventor of the saxophone, on the Rue Myrha in Paris's 18th arrondissement. After expansion it remained one of Selmer's primary production facilities until 1981.
References/External Links
The Selmer Company website
Steinway Musical Instruments
Henri Selmer Company
Selmer Guitar Amplifiers
woodwind.org
Serial numbers for Conn & Selmer instruments
References
^ Selmer history
Categories: Musical instrument manufacturing companies | Clarinet manufacturing companies | Brass instrument manufacturing companiesHidden categories: Articles needing cleanup from March 2009 | All pages needing cleanup | Articles with trivia sections from January 2009 | All articles with trivia sections
2008 Hungarian Grand Prix
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Report
Background
The Grand Prix was contested by 20 drivers, in ten teams of two. The teams, also known as "constructors", were Ferrari, McLaren-Mercedes, Renault, Honda, Force India-Ferrari, BMW Sauber, Toyota, Red Bull-Renault, Williams-Toyota and Toro Rosso-Ferrari. Prior to the race, McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton led the Drivers' Championship with 58 points, ahead of Ferrari team-mates Felipe Massa and Kimi Rikknen, who were on 54 and 51 points respectively. BMW drivers Robert Kubica (48) and Nick Heidfeld (41) were fourth and fifth in the championship, followed by Heikki Kovalainen, who had amassed 28 points in the second McLaren. In the Constructors' Championship, Ferrari were in the lead with 105 points, 16 ahead of BMW Sauber and a further three in front of McLaren. Further behind, the battle for fourth place between Toyota, Red Bull and Renault was covered by two points. ntn ball bearings
Following the preceding German Grand Prix, all of the teams conducted testing sessions at the Jerez circuit from July 2225. Sebastian Vettel (Toro Rosso) set the fastest time of the first day and second days, Mark Webber (Red Bull) topped the third day's running and Heikki Kovalainen was fastest on the final day of testing. Several teams tested using Bridgestone slick tyres, as a preparation for the switch from grooved to slick tyres for the 2009 season. BMW Sauber's test driver, Christian Klien, tested the new Kinetic Energy Recovery System (KERS), which was installed in the team's modified F1.07C car; the test formed part of the team's preparation for the system's race introduction under revised 2009 technical regulations. Testing of the system suffered a setback when, after a brief first run, one of the mechanics suffered an electric shock when the car came into the pit lane and he touched it. The team hence decided to halt its KERS testing until the cause of the shock could be ascertained. Amongst the other teams, Force India's test driver, Vitantonio Liuzzi, tested the team's new "seamless-shift" gearbox with a view to giving the system its race debut later in the year, whilst Timo Glock returned to the cockpit for the first time since his heavy crash at the German Grand Prix and encountered no ill-effects in the process. ntn ball bearing
Ferrari chairman Luca di Montezemolo founded the Formula One Teams Association (FOTA) in the week before the race. bulkhead fitting
In the week leading up to the race, a meeting between the teams at Ferrari's headquarters in Maranello resulted in the formation of a new representative body, the Formula One Teams Association (FOTA), which was led by Ferrari president Luca di Montezemolo. McLaren team principal Ron Dennis explained that the establishment of FOTA was intended to encourage greater co-operation between the teams, particularly in framing new sporting and technical regulations, and also to act as a counterweight to the sport's existing governing body, the Fdration Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) and the company responsible for its commercial management, Formula One Management (FOM). Some new contracts were also signed: on Thursday, the day before the first free practice sessions, McLaren confirmed that the team would retain Kovalainen for 2009 alongside Hamilton, whilst the organisers of the Hungarian Grand Prix signed a deal with Bernie Ecclestone, the president of FOM, to continue hosting the race until 2016.
Several teams made technical changes to their cars for the Grand Prix. Ferrari increased the size of the F2008 chassis's brake cooling ducts following high brake wear at the German Grand Prix, and also introduced a high, "shark-fin", engine cover, in addition to louvres in the bodywork to improve the car's cooling around its radiators. McLaren introduced a revised aerodynamic package for the MP4-23, which comprised a five-piece front wing, winglets atop the nosecone and redesigned bargeboards, all aimed at increasing the amount of downforce, and therefore grip, produced by the chassis. Force India introduced revised turning vanes to improve airflow over the VJM01 chassis, and also brought their seamless-shift gearbox to the event. Honda and Toyota also debuted shark-fin engine covers, and the former team additionally introduced a new rear suspension package.
The sport's sole tyre supplier, Bridgestone, provided two specifications of dry tyres for the race, designated Soft (also referred to as the "prime" tyre) and Super Soft (also referred to as the "option" tyre). The Super Soft compound was distinguished by a white stripe in one of the tyre's grooves. The rules stipulated that all cars should use both types of tyre during the course of the race.
Practice and qualifying
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday racewo on Friday, and a third on Saturday. The Friday morning session took place from 10:00 to 11:30 local time, and the afternoon session lasted from 14:00 to 15:30. The third session was held between 11:00 and 12:00 on Saturday morning.
Sebastian Vettel completed minimal running during the Friday practice sessions due to a recurring problem with his Toro Rosso car's hydraulic system.
The first practice session took place in dry weather conditions. The ambient temperature was between 2728 C (8182 F), and the track temperature ranged from 3134 C (8893 F) during the hour-long period. Massa set the session's fastest time with a lap of 1:20.981, almost four tenths of a second ahead of team-mate Rikknen. The two McLaren drivers were third and fourth, with Kovalainen ahead of Hamilton. Fernando Alonso and Nelson Piquet, Jr. set the fifth and eighth-fastest times respectively for Renault; they were separated by Glock (Toyota) and Kubica (BMW Sauber). Their team-mates, Heidfeld and Jarno Trulli, completed the top ten. Elsewhere in the pit lane, Vettel's Toro Rosso car was afflicted by a hydraulics problem. This restricted him to completing only four timed laps, and he was slowest overall.
The second practice session was held in very similar weather conditions to the first; the only difference being a slightly higher peak track temperature of 37 C (99 F). During this session, Hamilton set a fastest lap time of 1:20.554 to go quickest overall on Friday, with Kovalainen in third. The Renault drivers again showed well, with Piquet in second and Alonso fourth, although the team's Technical Director, Pat Symonds, admitted that both cars were running with slightly lower fuel loads than normal. Massa and Rikknen slipped to sixth and fifth respectivelyheir best times one-thousandth of a second aparthead of Heidfeld, Kubica, Trulli and Nico Rosberg for Williams. Vettel's car was still suffering from the hydraulics problem and he completed a mere five laps, again setting the slowest time of the session.
Saturday's weather was again dry for the third and final practice session, with ambient temperatures between 2729 C (8184 F) and track temperatures from 32 to 36 C (90 to 97 F). Hamilton again set the pace, cutting his fastest lap to a time of 1:20.228 which put him ahead of Massa, Glock, Kovalainen and Piquet. Heidfeld was much happier with the setup of his car and set the sixth-fastest time, but Kubica suffered a mechanical problem that restricted him to 18th position. Vettel had a trouble-free session and set the eighth-fastest time, a position behind team-mate Sbastien Bourdais. Rikknen and Rosberg completed the top ten ahead of qualifying.
Lewis Hamilton took his fourth pole position of the season, and the tenth of his career.
Saturday afternoon's qualifying session was divided into three parts. In the first 20-minute period, cars finishing 16th or lower were eliminated. The second qualifying period lasted for 15 minutes, at the end of which the fastest ten cars went into the final period, to determine their grid positions for the race. Cars failing to make the final period were allowed to be refuelled before the race but those competing in it were not, and so carried more fuel than they had done in the earlier qualifying sessions. The session was held in dry weather conditions that were slightly hotter than any of the free practice sessions; the ambient temperature ranged between 30 and 31 C (86 and 88 F), whilst track temperatures were between 38 and 41 C (100 and 106 F).
"The team has done a fantastic job of continually improving the car over the past few weeks, so I'm really proud of what we've achieved today. It's great to have locked out the front row with Heikki - we've been threatening to do it for a number of races, so to achieve it at a track where it's tricky to pass is really satisfying. There's a great harmony within the team at the moment and we really deserved this. I couldn ask to be in a better position, we've both got good strategies for tomorrow and we'll be challenging for the win."
ewis Hamilton, commenting on taking pole position.
Hamilton set the pace in the first and final parts of the session, and duly took pole position on the starting grid with a time of 1:20.899. He was delighted with the handling of his McLaren, saying that he had never been more comfortable in the car. He did, however, believe that he could have recorded a faster lap, as he made a slight mistake going into Turn Five. Hamilton was joined on the front row by his team-mate Kovalainen, who was fuelled for an additional two laps in the race, and recorded a lap time 0.241 seconds slower. Massa set the session's fastest time of 1:19.068 during its second part, but was unable to heat his tyres sufficiently due to traffic and dropped to third overall in the final part of qualifying. Rikknen was on a heavier fuel load than his team-mate, but also made a mistake on his final flying lap that restricted him to sixth place. That left him behind Kubica and Glock on the grid; the BMW Sauber driver achieving his competitive time despite handling problems that led him to describe his lap as his best so far of the season, whilst the Toyota driver recorded the best qualifying result of his career thus far. Alonso qualified in seventh position with Piquet in tenth on a heavy fuel load; the Renault team-mates were split by Webber and Trulli. Crucially, both McLaren drivers had used one fewer set of the Soft tyreshich were expected to be more favourable in the race than the Super Softshan Ferrari during the qualifying session, suggesting that Hamilton and Kovalainen might have a tyre performance advantage in the race. This was because the Soft tyre had turned out to be the fastest tyre choice over the course of a single lap, despite the theoretical performance advantage of the Super Soft; Ferrari used an additional set of Soft tyres to McLaren before realising this was the case.
Vettel was the fastest driver not to advance into the final session, his eleventh-best time of 1:20.131 just over a second of Massa's pace in the second session. His team-mate, Bourdais, set the fourteenth-fastest lap, but was penalised five positions on the grid for impeding Heidfeld during the first part of qualifying; a delay which limited the BMW Sauber driver to the sixteenth-fastest time. The Toro Rosso drivers were split, prior to Bourdais's penalty, by Jenson Button, who found his Honda's revised suspension to be a significant improvement; and David Coulthard, who believed that the Hungaroring did not suit the handling characteristics of his Red Bull RB4 chassis. Rosberg made it into the second part of qualifying, but did not complete any laps thereafter due to his Williams car developing a hydraulics problem. Kazuki Nakajima (Williams), Rubens Barrichello (Honda) and the Force India team-mates Giancarlo Fisichella and Adrian Sutil joined Heidfeld in failing to advance beyond the first part of qualifying, thus completing the final rows of the grid. In the first part of qualifying (the only section in which all drivers took part), the entire field was covered by just under three seconds.
Race
The race took place in dry and sunny weather conditions, with an ambient temperature of between 30 and 31 C (86 and 88 F), and a track temperature ranging from 40 to 43 C (104 to 109 F). Every driver except Coulthard started on the Soft compound tyres. At the start of the race, Massa made a good start on his only remaining new set of Soft tyres, out-dragging Kovalainen off the starting grid and drawing alongside Hamilton into the first corner. Hamilton held the inside line for the turn, but Massa braked later than the McLaren driver and passed him around the outside. Behind the leading three in the run down to the first corner, Glock moved ahead of Kubica, whilst Alonso overtook Rikknen. Barrichello made the best start in the field, jumping from seventeenth to thirteenth place at the end of the first lap, whilst Vettel made a poor start and lost four places over the same distance. At the completion of the first lap, Massa led from Hamilton, Kovalainen, Glock, Kubica, Alonso, Rikknen, Webber, Trulli, Piquet, Coulthard, Heidfeld, Barrichello, Button, Vettel, Bourdais, Rosberg, Nakajima, Fisichella and Sutil.
Heikki Kovalainen benefited from problems that afflicted pace-setters Hamilton and Felipe Massa to take the first win of his Formula One career.
Massa and Hamilton immediately began to pull clear of Kovalainen. On lap 3, Button overtook his team-mate Barrichello for thirteenth position, but both Honda drivers were stuck behind Heidfeld, who was carrying a heavier fuel load than either of them. As the race progressed, Massa began to open up a small lead over Hamilton, who had put his McLaren into a "fuel-saving mode", in order to attempt to jump ahead of Massa later on in the race by making a pit stop after the Ferrari driver. In addition, the high track temperature was to the Ferrari chassis's advantage, as it was easier on its tyres than the McLaren and was able to run them at an operating temperature of up to 10 C (18 F) lower, resulting in lower tyre wear. By lap 18, Massa had a lead of 3.5 seconds over Hamilton, who in turn was almost eight seconds ahead of Kovalainen. Glock was a further three seconds behind the second McLaren driver, and there was a further gap back to Kubica, who was finding his BMW Sauber very difficult to drive in race conditions with a lack of grip and stability under braking, holding up the next few cars.
Massa, Kubica and Webber were the first three drivers to make pit stops by coming in on lap 18. Hamilton made his own first stop on the next lap; the McLaren mechanics had timed Massa's stop to estimate the amount of fuel he received and duly fuelled Hamilton to run for three laps longer than the Ferrari in the second stint of the race. Kovalainen then took over the lead of the race for two laps, before his pit stop on lap 21 returned it to Massa. Glock was cost a few seconds during his pit stop by the fuel rig failing to connect properly with his car, but did not lose any positions. Piquet was the last of the leading runners to make a pit stop, on lap 25, allowing him to jump ahead of Kubica, Trulli and Webber. Further down the order, Vettel made an unscheduled pit stop on lap 20, and retired two laps later with an overheating engine. By the end of lap 26, Massa, Hamilton, Kovalainen, Glock, Alonso, Rikknen, Trulli, Kubica, Webber and Vettel had all made pit stops. The race order was Massa leading from Hamilton, Kovalainen, Glock, Coulthard (yet to pit), Alonso, Rikknen, Piquet, Trulli, Kubica, Webber, Heidfeld, Button, Barrichello, Bourdais, Rosberg, Nakajima, Fisichella and Sutil.
Timo Glock also took the best result of his career by finishing in second place.
Hamilton rejoined the race following his first pit stop 2.6 seconds behind Massa, and needed to stay within approximately 3.5 seconds of the Ferrari driver in order to gain track position after the second round of pit stops. Massa began to pull away again, easing the gap open to four seconds by lap 32, whilst Hamilton locked his front-left wheel as he tried to keep up with the Ferrari, flat-spotting the tyre in the process. The two continued to set fastest laps as they pulled away from the rest of the field. On lap 29, Coulthard made his first pit stop, dropping back to twelfth place as a result. Button, Barrichello, Bourdais, Rosberg, Nakajima, Fisichella and Sutil also made their first pit stops at this stage of the race. Three of these drivers experienced delays during their pit stops which dropped them down the running order: Barrichello and Bourdais both suffered flash fires, whilst Rosberg's fuel hose jammed, losing him time.
At the front of the field, Massa continued to pull away gradually from Hamilton; the gap between the two had risen to five seconds by the end of lap 40. On the following lap, Hamilton's front-left tyre deflated approaching Turn Two, the resultant slow lap back to the pit lane and stop for a replacement tyre dropping him back to tenth place. Massa now had a 23-second lead over Kovalainen and slackened his pace accordingly, adjusting the performance of the engine to place it under less mechanical stress. He made his final pit stop on lap 44, allowing Kovalainen to take the lead until his own visit to the pit lane four laps later, handing Massa back his comfortable lead. On lap 41, Heidfeld made his one and only pit stop, dropping from eleventh to twelfth position, and in the following laps the other drivers made their second stops, except Nakajima, who had converted to a one-stop strategy at his first visit to his pit box. Behind the leading trio of Massa, Kovalainen and Glock, Rikknen moved ahead of Alonso despite running off the road just prior to his pit stop, whilst Piquet fended off Trulli has they battled for position following the former's exit from the pit lane. The pit stop sequence allowed Hamilton to move back up the order, to sixth place behind Alonso. Further back, Bourdais suffered another flash fire on lap 45, and made another visit to the pit lane one lap later to have his helmet visor cleansed of fire extinguisher foam. Rosberg was the final scheduled driver to make a pit stop, on lap 58. The majority of the drivers ran with Soft tyres for the first two stints of the race, and then switched to the Super Soft compound for the final stint.
Massa walks away from his car, having suffered an engine failure whilst leading with three laps to go.
At the conclusion of lap 59, the running order was Massa leading from Kovalainen, Glock, Rikknen, Alonso, Hamilton, Piquet, Trulli, Kubica, Webber, Heidfeld, Coulthard, Button, Nakajima, Rosberg, Fisichella, Sutil, Barrichello and Bourdais. Running in clear air for the first time, Rikknen set the fastest lap of the race, 1:21.195, on lap 61 as he closed the nine-second gap to Glock at a rate of a second per lap. Hamilton caught Alonso at a similar rate, but his rear Super Soft tyres began to overheat and he was unable to make any further impression after closing the gap to 1.5 seconds. On lap 62, Sutil suffered a puncture caused by a brake failure and became the second retirement of the race. Into the closing laps, Kovalainen had reduced his deficit to Massa to 15 seconds, but the Ferrari driver appeared to be in command of the race. However, as Massa started lap 68 and changed up into seventh gear, his engine failed, retiring him from the lead with three laps remaining. Kovalainen was thus promoted into first position, which he held to take the first victory of his Formula One career in a time of 1'37:27.067, at an average speed of 117.309 miles per hour (188.791 km/h). He was also the 100th driver to win a Formula One World Championship race, and it was the first time that a car bearing the number 23 had won a race since Jim Clark at the 1964 Belgian Grand Prix. Glock likewise claimed the best result of his career, and first podium finish, with second position, whilst Rikknen took the final place on the podium despite a failure in his car's rear suspension in the final few laps. Alonso and Piquet finished on either side of Hamilton in fifth position, leading Renault's Engineering Director, Pat Symonds, to describe the race as his team's best of the year so far. Trulli finished seventh, ahead of Kubica, who was extremely disappointed with the uncompetitive performance of his car at the Grand Prix closest to his home country of Poland. His team-mate, Heidfeld, finished in tenth place between the two Red Bull drivers, both of whom were also dismayed by their team's performance. Button, Nakajima, Rosberg and Fisichella filled the next places, a lap behind the leader, whilst Barrichello was two laps down in 16th position after the delay at his first pit stop. Massa was classified in 17th place, ahead of Bourdais, who was the final finisher.
Post-race
"There have been various incidents this year and we have been in the position after Saturday quite a few times to fight for the victory, but always something has gone wrong and it hasn't functioned perfectly. Today obviously I knew Massa and Lewis were both very fast at the beginning of the race but half way through the race I felt it was starting to work for me a little bit better and then at the end I just tried to put pressure on Massa and hoped something would happen and obviously it looked like he had a mechanical failure, so it all worked fine for me today and I am very, very happy about it. All the hard work that the whole team has put in the last few months, through difficult times, we just kept pushing and it is very respectable and I am very, very glad to score my first victory."
eikki Kovalainen, speaking during the post-race FIA press conference for the podium finishers.
Kovalainen was delighted with his maiden Formula One victory, but was aware that his win owed something to good fortune. After the race, he said that "I feel a bit sorry for Felipe and Lewis. They both drove great races, but I know how it feels when things go wrong've had a few similar moments this year. I tried to put pressure on Felipe, especially during the last stint. I felt something might happen if I did that, you never know, but I still found it hard to believe when I saw his Ferrari on fire." The race remains Kovalainen's sole Formula One win to date. Glock was similarly pleased with second position, and spoke of how he had worked hard in recent times to improve his race starts, and how he had focussed on not making any mistakes instead of attempting to respond to Rikknen's pace in the closing laps. Rikknen described his race as "frustrating and boring" due to the amount of time he spent stuck behind slower cars.
The podium finishers were overshadowed by media coverage of the ill fortune of both the weekend's pace-setters, Hamilton and Massa. Massa was praised in particular for his performance: Ferrari team principal, Stefano Domenicali, termed it "the best race of his career. It was fantastic the way he managed the race." Journalist Mark Hughes described it as "almost certainly his best race to date", and colleague Simon Arron similarly termed it as "one of the finest afternoons of his F1 career". Both drew attention to his controlled aggression at the first corner of the race, followed by his relentless, mistake-free pace for the rest of his race. Arron, in particular, noted that Massa's first-corner passing move was reminiscent of something that observers had come to expect from Hamilton in the past, and was a watershed moment in Massa's championship campaign. Hamilton himself later expressed surprise that Massa had been able to overtake him in such a manner, and warned his rival that "it won't happen again". Hughes described the Grand Prix as "a throwback race", in that the leaders had suffered from unreliability, and the winner had not been in contention on speed alone; a situation reminiscent of earlier times in the sport when the cars were generally less reliable.
Regarding Hamilton's puncture, Hirohide Hamashima of Bridgestone said that it was probably caused by debris, although the precise nature of the failure was impossible to determine as a result of the damage the tyre had sustained. He also stated that Hamilton's tyre was more vulnerable to sustaining debris damage due to the fact that he had flat-spotted it earlier in the race. Massa said that he had no prior indication of his engine failure. The problem was later traced to a connecting rod failure caused by an impurity with the constructed material. An identical problem caused Rikknen to retire from the following race, the 2008 European Grand Prix.
As a consequence of the race result, Hamilton extended his lead in the Drivers' Championship to five points ahead of Rikknen, who moved ahead of Massa in the standings. Kubica and Heidfeld maintained their fourth and fifth placings, but Kovalainen moved to within three points of the latter due to his maximum points score. In the Constructors' Championship, McLaren jumped ahead of BMW Sauber for second position, behind Ferrari. Behind Toyota, Renault moved ahead of Red Bull. Despite his increased lead, Hamilton acknowledged that he expected the Ferrari drivers to be formidable opponents over the season's seven remaining races.
Classification
Qualifying
Pos
No
Name
Constructor
Part 1
Part 2
Part 3
Grid
1
22
Lewis Hamilton
McLaren-Mercedes
1:19.376
1:19.473
1:20.899
1
2
23
Heikki Kovalainen
McLaren-Mercedes
1:19.945
1:19.480
1:21.140
2
3
2
Felipe Massa
Ferrari
1:19.578
1:19.068
1:21.191
3
4
4
Robert Kubica
BMW Sauber
1:20.053
1:19.776
1:21.281
4
5
12
Timo Glock
Toyota
1:19.980
1:19.246
1:21.326
5
6
1
Kimi Rikknen
Ferrari
1:20.006
1:19.546
1:21.516
6
7
5
Fernando Alonso
Renault
1:20.229
1:19.816
1:21.698
7
8
10
Mark Webber
Red Bull-Renault
1:20.073
1:20.046
1:21.732
8
9
11
Jarno Trulli
Toyota
1:19.942
1:19.486
1:21.767
9
10
6
Nelson Piquet, Jr.
Renault
1:20.583
1:20.131
1:22.371
10
11
15
Sebastian Vettel
Toro Rosso-Ferrari
1:20.157
1:20.144
11
12
16
Jenson Button
Honda
1:20.888
1:20.332
12
13
9
David Coulthard
Red Bull-Renault
1:20.505
1:20.502
13
14
14
Sbastien Bourdais
Toro Rosso-Ferrari
1:20.640
1:20.963
191
15
7
Nico Rosberg
Williams-Toyota
1:20.748
no time
14
16
3
Nick Heidfeld
BMW Sauber
1:21.045
15
17
8
Kazuki Nakajima
Williams-Toyota
1:21.085
16
18
17
Rubens Barrichello
Honda
1:21.332
17
19
21
Giancarlo Fisichella
Force India-Ferrari
1:21.670
18
20
20
Adrian Sutil
Force India-Ferrari
1:22.113
20
Source:
Note 1: Sbastien Bourdais was penalised five places on the grid for impeding Nick Heidfeld during first qualifying.
Race
Pos
No
Driver
Constructor
Laps
Time/Retired
Grid
Points
1
23
Heikki Kovalainen
McLaren-Mercedes
70
1:37:27.067
2
10
2
12
Timo Glock
Toyota
70
+11.061
5
8
3
1
Kimi Rikknen
Ferrari
70
+16.856
6
6
4
5
Fernando Alonso
Renault
70
+21.614
7
5
5
22
Lewis Hamilton
McLaren-Mercedes
70
+23.048
1
4
6
6
Nelson Piquet, Jr.
Renault
70
+32.298
10
3
7
11
Jarno Trulli
Toyota
70
+36.449
9
2
8
4
Robert Kubica
BMW Sauber
70
+48.321
4
1
9
10
Mark Webber
Red Bull-Renault
70
+58.834
8
10
3
Nick Heidfeld
BMW Sauber
70
+1:07.709
15
11
9
David Coulthard
Red Bull-Renault
70
+1:10.407
13
12
16
Jenson Button
Honda
69
+1 Lap
12
13
8
Kazuki Nakajima
Williams-Toyota
69
+1 Lap
16
14
7
Nico Rosberg
Williams-Toyota
69
+1 Lap
14
15
21
Giancarlo Fisichella
Force India-Ferrari
69
+1 Lap
18
16
17
Rubens Barrichello
Honda
68
+2 Laps
17
17
2
Felipe Massa
Ferrari
67
Engine
3
18
14
Sbastien Bourdais
Toro Rosso-Ferrari
67
+3 Laps
19
Ret
20
Adrian Sutil
Force India-Ferrari
62
Brakes
20
Ret
15
Sebastian Vettel
Toro Rosso-Ferrari
22
Overheating
11
Source:
Standings after the race
Drivers' Championship standings
Pos
Driver
Points
1
Lewis Hamilton
62
2
Kimi Rikknen
57
3
Felipe Massa
54
4
Robert Kubica
49
5
Nick Heidfeld
41
Constructors' Championship standings
Pos
Constructor
Points
1
Ferrari
111
2
McLarenercedes
100
3
BMW Sauber
90
4
Toyota
35
5
Renault
31
Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.
References
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^ "Jerez plays host to pre-Hungary test". formula1.com. Formula One Administration. 2008-07-22. http://www.formula1.com/news/headlines/2008/7/8137.html. Retrieved 2008-07-29.
^ See Formula One tyres for more information.
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^ Noble, Jonathan (2008-07-22). "BMW halt KERS testing after scare". autosport.com. Haymarket Publications. http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/69394. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
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^ Piola, Giorgio; Hughes, Mark; Anderson, Gary (2008-08-07). "F1 Report, Hungarian Grand Prix: Tech Focus". Autosport 193 (6): 4647.
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^ a b "2008 Formula One Sporting Regulations" (PDF). Fdration Internationale de l'Automobile. 2008-05-19. Archived from the original on 2009-10-03. http://www.webcitation.org/5kGG4qkuO. Retrieved 2008-12-02.
^ "Final practice - Massa heads the Hamilton chase". formula1.com. Formula One Management. 2008-08-02. http://www.formula1.com/news/headlines/2008/8/8186.html. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
^ Hamilton, Lewis (2008-08-02). "Qualifying - selected driver quotes". formula1.com. Formula One Administration. http://www.formula1.com/news/headlines/2008/8/8188.html. Retrieved 2009-12-14.
^ a b c d e f Hughes, Mark (2008-08-07). "F1 Report, Hungarian Grand Prix: Qualifying". Autosport 193 (6): 41.
^ a b Arron, Simon (2008). "Grands Prix 2008: Hungarian Grand Prix". Autocourse 2008-2009. Crash Media Group. p. 194. ISBN 978-1905334-31-5.
^ a b c d Hughes, Mark (2008-08-07). "F1 Report, Hungarian Grand Prix: Felipe's Pain, Heikki's Gain". Autosport 193 (6): 40.
^ a b c d e Arron, Simon (2008). "Grands Prix 2008: Hungarian Grand Prix". Autocourse 2008-2009. Crash Media Group. p. 195. ISBN 978-1905334-31-5.
^ a b c d Hughes, Mark (2008-08-07). "F1 Report, Hungarian Grand Prix: Felipe's Pain, Heikki's Gain". Autosport 193 (6): 43.
^ a b c d e f g Arron, Simon (2008). "Grands Prix 2008: Hungarian Grand Prix". Autocourse 2008-2009. Crash Media Group. p. 197. ISBN 978-1905334-31-5.
^ a b c d e f g h Hughes, Mark (2008-08-07). "F1 Report, Hungarian Grand Prix: Felipe's Pain, Heikki's Gain". Autosport 193 (6): 44.
^ a b Arron, Simon (2008). "Grands Prix 2008: Hungarian Grand Prix". Autocourse 2008-2009. Crash Media Group. p. 198. ISBN 978-1905334-31-5.
^ Noble, Jonathan (2008-08-07). "F1 Report, Hungarian Grand Prix: Offline". Autosport 193 (6): 4445.
^ Kovalainen, Heikki (2008-08-03). "FIA post-race press conference - Hungary". formula1.com. Formula One Administration. http://www.formula1.com/news/headlines/2008/8/8200.html. Retrieved 2009-12-22.
^ Rikknen, Kimi (2008-08-03). "Hungarian Grand Prix - selected driver quotes". formula1.com. Formula One Administration. http://www.formula1.com/news/headlines/2008/8/8200.html. Retrieved 2009-12-22.
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External links
Wikinews has related news: Heikki Kovalainen wins 2008 Hungarian Grand Prix
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Official FIA results
Previous race:
2008 German Grand Prix
FIA Formula One World Championship
2008 season
Next race:
2008 European Grand Prix
Previous race:
2007 Hungarian Grand Prix
Hungarian Grand Prix
Next race:
2009 Hungarian Grand Prix
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previousormula One Grands Prix (20002009)ext
2009
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2008
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2007
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2006
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2005
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2004
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2003
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2002
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2001
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2000
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Categories: 2008 Formula One race reports | Hungarian Grand Prix | 2008 in Hungary
