Rebar

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Use in concrete and masonry

Concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but relatively weak in tension. To compensate for this imbalance in concrete's behavior, rebar is cast into it to carry the tensile loads.

Masonry structures and the mortar holding them together have similar properties to concrete and also have a limited ability to carry tensile loads. Some standard masonry units like blocks and bricks are made with strategically placed voids to accommodate rebar, which is then secured in place with grout. This combination is known as reinforced masonry. timer pill box

While any material with sufficient tensile strength could conceivably be used to reinforce concrete, steel and concrete have similar coefficients of thermal expansion: a concrete structural member reinforced with steel will experience minimal stress as a result of differential expansions of the two interconnected materials caused by temperature changes. pill containers

Physical characteristics pill organizers

Steel has an expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern concrete. If this weren't so, it would cause problems through additional longitudinal and perpendicular stresses at temperatures different than the temperature of the setting. Although rebar has ribs that bind it mechanically to the concrete, it can still be pulled out of the concrete under high stresses, an occurrence that often precedes a larger-scale collapse of the structure. To prevent such a failure, rebar is either deeply embedded into adjacent structural members (40-60 times the diameter), or bent and hooked at the ends to lock it around the concrete and other rebar. This first approach increases the friction locking the bar into place, while the second makes use of the high compressive strength of concrete.

Common rebar is made of unfinished tempered steel, making it susceptible to rusting. Normally the concrete cover is able to provide a pH value higher than 12 avoiding the corrosion reaction. Too little concrete cover can compromise this guard through carbonation from the surface. Too much concrete cover can cause bigger crack widths which also compromises the local guard. As rust takes up greater volume than the steel from which it was formed, it causes severe internal pressure on the surrounding concrete, leading to cracking, spalling, and ultimately, structural failure. This is a particular problem where the concrete is exposed to salt water, as in bridges built in areas where salt is applied to roadways in winter, or in marine applications. Epoxy-coated, galvanized or stainless steel rebars may be employed in these situations at greater initial expense, but significantly lower expense over the service life of the project. Especially epoxy-coated have to be installed with great care, because even small cracks and failures in the coating can lead to intensified local chemical reactions not visible at the surface.

Fiber-reinforced polymer rebar is now also being used in high-corrosion environments. It is available in many forms, from spirals for reinforcing columns, to the common rod, to meshes and many other forms. Most commercially available rebars are made from unidirectional glassfibre reinforced thermoset resins.

Rebar sizes and grades

U.S. Imperial sizes

Imperial bar designations represent the bar diameter in fractions of 18 inch, such that #8 = 88 inch = 1 inch diameter. Area = (bar size/9)2 such that area of #8 = (8/9)2 = 0.79 in2. This applies to #8 bars and smaller. Larger bars have a slightly larger diameter than the one computed using the 18 inch convention.

Imperial

Bar Size

"Soft"

Metric Size

Weight

(lbt)

Weight

(kg/m)

Nominal Diameter

(in)

Nominal Diameter

(mm)

Nominal Area

(in)

Nominal Area

(mm)

#3

#10

0.376

0.561

0.375 = 38

9.525

0.11

71

#4

#13

0.668

0.996

0.500 = 48

12.7

0.20

129

#5

#16

1.043

1.556

0.625 = 58

15.875

0.31

200

#6

#19

1.502

2.24

0.750 = 68

19.05

0.44

284

#7

#22

2.044

3.049

0.875 = 78

22.225

0.60

387

#8

#25

2.670

3.982

1.000 = 88

25.4

0.79

509

#9

#29

3.400

5.071

1.128

28.65

1.00

645

#10

#32

4.303

6.418

1.270

32.26

1.27

819

#11

#36

5.313

7.924

1.410

35.81

1.56

1006

#14

#43

7.650

11.41

1.693

43

2.25

1452

#18

#57

13.60

20.284

2.257

57.33

4.00

2581

Canadian metric sizes

Metric bar designations represent the nominal bar diameter in millimeters, rounded to the nearest 5 mm.

Metric

Bar Size

Mass

(kg/m)

Nominal Diameter

(mm)

Cross-Sectional

Area (mm)

10M

0.785

11.3

100

15M

1.570

16.0

200

20M

2.355

19.5

300

25M

3.925

25.2

500

30M

5.495

29.9

700

35M

7.850

35.7

1000

45M

11.775

43.7

1500

55M

19.625

56.4

2500

European metric sizes

Metric bar designations represent the nominal bar diameter in millimetres. Bars in Europe will be specified to comply with the standard EN 10080 (awaiting introduction as of early 2007), although various national standards still remain in force (e.g. BS 4449 in the United Kingdom).

Metric

Bar Size

Mass

(kg/m)

Nominal Diameter

(mm)

Cross-Sectional

Area (mm)

6,0

0.222

6

28.3

8,0

0.395

8

50.3

10,0

0.617

10

78.5

12,0

0.888

12

113

14,0

1.21

14

154

16,0

1.579

16

201

20,0

2.467

20

314

25,0

3.855

25

491

28,0

4.83

28

616

32,0

6.316

32

804

40,0

9.868

40

1257

50,0

15.413

50

1963

Grades

Rebar is available in different grades and specifications that vary in yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, chemical composition, and percentage of elongation.

The grade designation is equal to the minimum yield strength of the bar in ksi (1000 psi) for example grade 60 rebar has a minimum yield strength of 60 ksi. Rebar is typically manufactured in grades 40, 60, and 75.

Common specification are:

ASTM A 615 Deformed and plain carbon-steel bars for concrete reinforcement

ASTM A 706 Low-alloy steel deformed and plain bars for concrete reinforcement

ASTM A 955 Deformed and plain stainless-steel bars for concrete reinforcement

ASTM A 996 Rail-steel and axle-steel deformed bars for concrete reinforcement

Historically in Europe, rebar is composed of mild steel material with a yield strength of approximately 250 N/mm. Modern rebar is composed of high-yield steel, with a yield strength more typically 500 N/mm. Rebar can be supplied with various grades of ductility, with the more ductile steel capable of absorbing considerably greater energy when deformed - this can be of use in design to resist the forces from earthquakes for example.

Placing rebar

Rebar cages are fabricated either on or off the project site commonly with the help of hydraulic benders and shears, however for small or custom work a tool known as a Hickey - or hand rebar bender, is sufficient. The rebars are placed by rodbusters or concrete reinforcing ironworkers with bar supports separating the rebar from the concrete forms to establish concrete cover and ensure that proper embedment is achieved. The rebars in the cages are connected by welding or tying wires. For epoxy coated or galvanised rebars only the latter is possible.

Welding

Most grades of steel used in rebar are suitable for welding, which can be used to bind several pieces of rebar together. However, welding can reduce the fatigue life of the rebar, and as a result rebar cages are normally tied together with wire. Grade ASTM A706 is suitable for welding without damaging the properties of the steel. Besides fatigue concerns welding rebar has become less common in developed countries due to the high labor costs of certified welders. Steel for prestressed concrete may absolutely not be welded.

In the US, most rebar is not suitable for welding. ASTM A 616 & ASTM A 617 reinforcing are re-rolled rail steel & re-rolled rail axle steel with uncontrolled chemistry, phosphorous & carbon content. These are not suitable for welding. To weld rebar you must obtain a mill statement that the reinforcing is suitable for welding.

Rebar couplers

When welding or wire-tying rebar is impractical or uneconomical a mechanical connection or rebar coupler can be used to connect two or more bars together. These couplers are popular in precast concrete construction at the joints between members and to reduce rebar congestion in highly reinforced areas.

A full mechanical connection is achieved when the bars connected develop in tension or compression a minimum of 125% of the yield strength of the bar.

Safety

To prevent workers and / or pedestrians from accidentally impaling themselves, the protruding ends of steel rebar are often bent over or covered with special steel-reinforced plastic "plate" caps. "Mushroom" caps may provide protection from scratches and other minor injuries, but provide little to no protection from impalement.

Rebar designation

For clarity, reinforcement is usually tabulated in a Reinforcement Schedule on construction drawings. This eliminates ambiguity in the various notations used in different parts of the world. The following list provides examples of the different notations used in the architectural, engineering, and construction industry.

New Zealand

Designation

Explanation

HD-16-300, T&B, EW

High strength (500 MPa) 16 mm diameter rebars spaced at 300 mm centers (center-to-center distance) on both the top and bottom face and in each way as well (i.e., longitudinal and transverse).

3-D12

Three mild strength (300 MPa) 12 mm diameter rebars

R8 Stirrups @ 225 MAX

D grade (300 MPa) smooth bar stirrups, spaced at 225 mm centres. By default in New Zealand practice all stirrups are normally interpreted as being full, closed, loops. This is a detailing requirement for concrete ductility in seismic zones; If a single strand of stirrup with a hook at each end was required, this would typically be both specified and illustrated.

United States

Designation

Explanation

#4 @ 12 OC, T&B, EW

Number 4 rebars spaced 12 inches on center (center-to-center distance) on both the top and bottom faces and in each way as well, i.e. longitudinal and transverse.

(3) #4

Three number 4 rebars (usually used when the rebar perpendicular to the detail)

#3 ties @ 9 OC, (2) per set

Number 3 rebars used as stirrups, spaced at 9 inches on center. Each set consists of two ties, which is usually illustrated.

See also

Composite material

Concrete cover

Dowel

Formwork

Fusion bonded epoxy coating

for coated rebars

Reinforced concrete

Steel fixer

Carbon grid

References

^ Basic Rebar Information: http://www.usingrebar.com/

^ GFRP Bar Transverse Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Effects on Concrete Cover

^ American Concrete Institute: "Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-08) and Commentary," ISBN 978-0-87031-264-9

^ CRSI: 'Manual of Standard Practice', 8-2, 1998.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rebar

Stainless rebar information

OSHA Rebar Impalement Protection Measures

Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute

American Concrete Institute

Categories: Building materials | Concrete | SteelsHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from January 2008 | All articles needing additional references

Cookware and bakeware

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History

The history of cooking vessels before the development of pottery is minimal due to the limited archaeological evidence. It has been possible to extrapolate likely developments based on methods used by latter peoples. Among the first of the techniques believed to be used by stone age civilizations were improvements to basic roasting. In addition to exposing food to direct heat from either an open fire or hot embers it is possible to cover the food with clay or large leaves before roasting to preserve moisture in the cooked result. Examples of similar techniques are still in use in many modern cuisines.

Of greater difficulty was finding a method to boil water. For people without access to natural heated water sources, such as hot springs, heated stones could be placed in a water-filled vessel to raise its temperature (for example, a leaf-lined pit or the stomach from animals killed by hunters.). In many locations the shells of turtles or large mollusks provided a source for waterproof cooking vessels. Bamboo tubes sealed at the end with clay provided a usable container in Asia, while the inhabitants of the Tehuacan Valley began carving large stone bowls that were permanently set into a hearth as early as 7000 BC. spiral binding supplies

According to Frank Hamilton Cushing, native American cooking baskets used by the Zuni (Zui) developed from mesh casings woven to stabilize gourd water vessels. He reported witnessing cooking basket use by Havasupai in 1881. Roasting baskets covered with clay would be filled with wood coals and the product to be roasted. When the thus hardened clay separated from the basket, it would become a usable clay roasting pan in itself. This indicates a steady progression from use of woven gourd casings to waterproof cooking baskets to pottery. Other than in many other cultures, native Americans used and still use the heat source inside the cookware. Cooking baskets are filled with hot stones and roasting pans with wood coals. smart card reader writer

Native Americans, both in the East and in the West, would form a basket from large leaves to boil water, according to historian and novelist Louis L'Amour. As long as the flames did not reach above the level of water in the basket, the leaves would not burn through.[citation needed] inkjet refill machine

The development of pottery allowed for the creation of fireproof cooking vessels in a variety of shapes and sizes. Coating the earthenware with some type of plant gum, and later ceramic glazes, converted the porous container into a waterproof vessel. The earthenware cookware could then be suspended over a fire through use of a tripod or other apparatus, or even be placed directly into a low fire or coal bed as in the case of the pipkin. Ceramics (including stoneware and glass) conduct poorly, however, so ceramic pots must cook over relatively low heats and over long periods of time (most modern ceramic pots will crack if used on the stovetop, and are only intended for the oven). Even after metal pots have come into widespread use, earthenware pots are still preferred among the less well-off, globally, due to their low production cost.[citation needed]

The development of bronze and iron metalworking skills allowed for cookware made from metal to be manufactured, although adoption of the new cookware was slow due to the much higher cost. After the development of metal cookware there was little new development in cookware, with the standard Medieval kitchen utilizing a cauldron and a shallow earthenware pan for most cooking tasks, with a spit employed for roasting.

By the 17th century, it was common for a Western kitchen to contain a number of skillets, baking pans, a kettle and several pots, along with a variety of pot hooks and trivets. In the American colonies, these items would commonly be produced by a local blacksmith from iron while brass or copper vessels were common in Europe and Asia. Improvements in metallurgy during the 19th and 20th centuries allowed for pots and pans from metals such as steel, stainless steel and aluminium to be economically produced.

Cookware materials

Metal

Metal pots are made from a narrow range of metals because pots and pans need to conduct heat well, but also need to be chemically unreactive so that they do not alter the flavor of the food. Most materials that are conductive enough to heat evenly are too reactive to use in food preparation. In some cases (copper pots, for example), a pot may be made out of a more reactive metal, and then tinned or clad with another.

Aluminium

Aluminium is a lightweight metal with very good thermal conductivity. It does not rust, and is resistant to many forms of corrosion. Aluminium can, however, react with some acidic foods to change the taste of the food. Sauces containing egg yolks, or vegetables such as asparagus or artichokes may cause oxidation of non-anodized aluminium. Since 1965, circumstantial evidence has linked Alzheimer's disease to aluminium, but to date there is no proof that the element is involved in causing the disease.

Aluminum is commonly available in sheet, cast, or anodized forms. Sheet aluminum is spun or stamped into form. Due to the softness of the metal it is commonly alloyed with magnesium, copper, or bronze to increase its strength. Sheet aluminum is commonly used for baking sheets, pie plate, and cake or muffin pans. Stockpots, steamers, pasta pots, and even skillets are also available from sheet aluminum.

Anodized aluminum

Cast aluminum produces a thicker product than sheet aluminium, making it suitable for saucepots, Dutch ovens, and heavyweight baking pans such as bundt pans. Due to the microscopic pores caused by the casting process cast aluminium has a lower thermal conductivity than sheet aluminum.

Anodized aluminum has had the naturally occurring layer of aluminium oxide thickened by an electrolytic process to create a surface that is hard and non-reactive. It is used for saut pans, stockpots, roasters, and Dutch ovens.

Copper

Classically in Western cooking, the best pots were made out of a thick layer of copper for good thermal conductivity and a thin layer of tin to prevent the copper from reacting with acidic foods. Copper pans provide the best conductivity, and therefore the most even heating. They tend, however, to be heavy, expensive, and to require occasional retinning. They are now available with stainless steel rather than tin linings which last much longer. They are best for such high-heat, fast-cooking techniques as sauteing.

cast-iron

Cast Iron

Main article: Cast iron cookware

Cast iron cookware is slow to heat, but once at temperature provides even heating. Cast iron can also withstand very high temperatures, making cast iron pans ideal for searing. Being a reactive material, cast iron can have chemical reactions with high acid foods such as wine or tomatoes. In addition, some foods (such as spinach) cooked on bare cast iron will turn black.

Cast iron is a porous material that rusts easily. As a result, it typically requires seasoning before use. Seasoning creates a thin layer of fat and carbon over the iron that coats and protects the surface, and prevents sticking.

stainless steel

Stainless Steel

Stainless steel is an iron alloy containing a minimum of 11.5% chromium. Blends containing 18% chromium with either 8% nickel,called 18/8, or with 10% nickel, called 18/10, are commonly used for kitchen equipment. Stainless steel's virtues are a resistance to corrosion, it does not react with either alkaline or acidic foods, and it is not easily scratched or dented. Stainless steel's drawback for cooking use is that it is a relatively poor heat conductor. As a result, stainless steel cookware is generally made with a disk of copper or aluminium in or on the base to conduct the heat across the base.

carbon steel

Carbon Steel

Carbon steel cookware can be rolled or hammered into very thin sheets of material, while still maintaining high strength and heat resistance. This allows for rapid and high heating. Carbon steel does not conduct heat as well as other materials, but this may be an advantage for woks and paella pans, where one portion of the pan is intentionally kept at a different temperature than the rest. Like cast iron, carbon steel must be seasoned before use. Rub a fat (lard is recommended) on the cooking surface only and heat the cookware over the stovetop. The process can be repeated if needed. Over time the cooking surface will become dark and nonstick. Carbon steel is often used for woks and crepe pans.

Coated and composite cookware

Enameled cast iron

Enameled cast iron cooking vessels are made of cast iron covered with a porcelain surface. This creates a piece that has the heat distribution and retention properties of cast iron combined with a non-reactive, low-stick surface.

Enamel over steel

The enamel over steel technique creates a piece that has the heat distribution of carbon steel and a non-reactive, low-stick surface. Such pots are much lighter than most other pots of similar size, are cheaper to make than stainless steel pots, and do not have the rust and reactivity issues of cast iron or carbon steel. Enamel over steel is ideal for large stockpots, and for other large pans that will be used mostly for water-based cooking. Because of its light weight and easy cleanup, enamel over steel is also popular for cookware used while camping.

Clad aluminum or copper

Cladding is a technique for fabricating pans with a layer of heat conducting material, such as copper or aluminum, covered by a non-reactive material, such as stainless steel. Rather than just a heat-distributing disk on the base, the copper or aluminum extends over the entire pan.

Aluminum pans are typically clad on both their inside and the outside surfaces, providing both a stainless cooking surface and a stainless surface to contact the cooktop. Copper is typically clad on its interior surface only, leaving the more attractive copper exposed on the outside of the pan.

Some high-end cookware uses a dual-clad process, with a thin stainless layer on the cooking surface, a thick core of aluminum to provide structure and heat diffusion, and a thin layer of copper on the outside of the pot that provides additional diffusion and the "look" of a copper pot. This provides much of the functionality of tinned-copper pots for a fraction of the price.

Teflon coated frying pan

Non-stick

Modern metal cooking pans are frequently coated with a substance such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) coating in order to minimize the possibility of food sticking to the pan surface. This has advantages and disadvantages for flavor and ease of use. A small amount of sticking is needed to cause fond (called a glaze); adding liquid to lift the glaze from the pot is called deglazing. Additionally, nonstick pans should not be left on the stove at a high temperature. On the other hand, they are much easier to clean than other types of pots, and do not often result in burned food. When frying in pans without such a coating, it is necessary to use additional vegetable or animal fat to prevent sticking. The main difference in quality levels of the coatings are in the formulas of the liquid coating, the thickness of each layer and the number of layers of used.

Nonstick coatings tend to degrade over time, and require vigilant care and attention. In order to preserve the nonstick coating of a pan, it is important never to use metal implements in the pan while cooking, or harsh scouring pads or chemical abrasives when cleaning. Higher quality nonsticks use powdered ceramic or titanium mixed in with the nonstick to strengthen them and to make them more resistant to abrasion and deterioration. Some nonstick coatings containing hardening agents are also high enough in quality that they can be used in commercial kitchens. Some of which are high enough in quality, that they can be passed through the strict standards of the National Sanitation Foundation, which approve nonstick cookware for restaurant use.

There has been controversy surrounding the use of nonstick coatings: while decomposition does not occur at normal cooking temperatures, accidental overheating can produce decomposition products which are toxic to humans and fatal to birds.

Non-metallic cookware

Non-metallic cookware can be used in both conventional and microwave ovens. Non-metallic cookware typically can't be used on the stovetop, but some kinds of ceramic cookware, for example Corningware, are an exception.

Ceramics

Glazed ceramics, such as porcelain, provide a nonstick cooking surface. Some unglazed ceramics, such as terra cotta, have a porous surface that can hold water or other liquids during the cooking process, adding moisture in the form of steam to the food. Historically some glazes used on ceramic articles have contained high levels of lead, which can possess health risks.

Glass

Borosilicate glass, such as Pyrex, is safe at oven temperatures. The clear glass also allows for the food to be seen during the cooking process.

Glass-ceramic 

Glass ceramic is used to make products such as Corningware, which have many of the best properties of both glass and ceramic cookware. While Pyrex can shatter if taken between extremes of temperature too rapidly, glass-ceramics can be taken directly from deep freeze to the stove top. Their near-zero coefficient of thermal expansion makes them almost entirely immune to thermal shock.

Silicone

Silicone bakeware is light, flexible, and able to withstand sustained temperatures of 675F (360C). It melts around 930F (500C), depending upon the fillers used. Its flexibility is advantageous in removing baked goods from the pan. This rubbery material is not to be confused with the silicone resin used to make hard, shatterproof children's dishware, which is not suitable for baking.

Types of cookware and bakeware

The size and shape of a cooking vessel is typically determined by how it will be used. Cooking vessels are typically referred to as "pots" and "pans," but there is great variation in their actual shapes. Most cooking vessels are roughly cylindrical.

Cookware

A Pyrex chicken roaster

Rmertopf

Braising pans and roasting pans (also known as braisers and roasters) are large, wide and shallow, to provide space to cook a roast (chicken, beef, or pork). They typically have two loop or tab handles, and may have a cover. Roasters are usually made of heavy gauge metal so that they may be used safely on a cooktop following roasting in an oven. Unlike most other cooking vessels, roasters are usually oblong or oval. There is no sharp boundary between braisers and roasters - the same pan, with or without a cover, can be used for both functions. In Europe, a clay roaster (called sv:Lergryta/de:Rmertopf/sl:Rimski lonec) is still popular because it allows roasting without adding grease or liquids. This helps preserve flavor and nutrients. Having to soak the pot in water for 15 min. before use is a notable drawback.

Casserole pans (for making casseroles) resemble roasters and dutch ovens, and many recipes can be used interchangeably between them. Depending on their material, casseroles can be used in the oven or on the stovetop. Casseroles are commonly made of glazed ceramics or pyrex.

Dutch ovens are heavy, relatively deep pots with a heavy lid, designed to re-create oven conditions on the stovetop (or campfire). They can be used for stews, braised meats, soups, and a large variety of other dishes that benefit from low heat, slow cooking. Dutch ovens are typically made from cast iron, and are measured by volume.

Large and small skillets

Frying pans, frypans, skillets, or spiders (obs. Southern United States) provide a large flat heating surface and shallow sides, and are best for pan frying. Frypans with a gentle, rolling slope are sometimes called omelette pans. Grill pans are frypans that are ribbed, to let fat drain away from the food being cooked. Frypans and grill pans are generally measured by diameter (2030 cm).

Electric griddle with temperature control

Griddles are flat plates of metal used for frying, grilling, and making pan breads (such as pancakes, injera, tortillas, chapatis, and crepes). Traditional iron griddles are circular, with a semicircular hoop fixed to opposite edges of the plate and rising above it to form a central handle. Rectangular griddles that cover two stove burners are now also common, as are griddles that have a ribbed area that can be used like a grill pan. Some have multiple square metal grooves enabling the contents to have a defined pattern, similar to a waffle maker. Like frypans, round griddles are generally measured by diameter (2030 cm).

In Scotland, griddles are referred to as girdles. In some Spanish speaking countries, a similar pan is referred to as a comal. Crepe pans are similar to griddles, but are usually smaller, and made of a thinner metal.

Both griddles and frypans can be found in electric versions. These may be permanently attached to a heat source, similar to a hot plate.

A copper saucepot (stainless lined, with cast iron handles)

Saucepans (or just "pots") are vessels with vertical sides about the same height as their diameter, used for simmering or boiling. Saucepans generally have one long handle. Larger pots of the same shape generally have two handles close to the sides of the pot (so they can be lifted with both hands), and are called sauce-pots or soup pots (312 liters). Saucepans and saucepots are measured by volume (usually 18 L). While saucepots often resemble Dutch ovens in shape, they do not have the same heat capacity characteristics. Very small saucepans used for heating milk are referred to as Milk Pans, such saucepans usually have a lip for pouring the heated milk.

Ironically, the saucepan is not the ideal vessel to use for making sauces. It is more efficient to use saucepans with sloping sides, called Windsor pans, or saucepans with rounded sides, called sauciers. These provide quicker evaporation than straight sided pans, and make it easier to stir a sauce while reducing.

Saut pans, used for sauteing, have a large surface area and low sides to permit steam to escape and allow the cook to toss the food. The word "saut" comes from the French verb "sauter", meaning to jump. Saute pans often have straight vertical sides, but may also have flared or rounded sides.

Stockpots are large pots with sides at least as tall as their diameter. This allows stock to simmer for extended periods of time without reducing too much. Stockpots are typically measured in volume (6-36 L). Stock pots come in a large variety of sizes to meet any need from cooking for a family to preparing food for a banquet. A specific type of stockpot exists for lobsters, and an all-metal stockpot usually called a caldero is used in Hispanic cultures to make rice.

Woks are wide, roughly bowl-shaped vessels with one or two handles at or near the rim. This shape allows a small pool of cooking oil in the center of the wok to be heated to a high heat using relatively little fuel, while the outer areas of the wok are used to keep food warm after it has been fried in the oil. In the Western world, woks are typically used only for stir-frying, but they can actually be used for anything from steaming to deep frying.

Bakeware

Angel Food Cake Pan

Bakeware is designed for use in the oven (for baking), and encompasses a variety of different styles of baking pans as cake pans, pie pans, and loaf pans.

Cake pans include square pans, round pans, and speciality pans such as angel food cake pans and springform pans often used for baking cheesecake.

Sheet pans, cookie sheets, and jelly-roll pans are bakeware with large flat bottoms.

Pie pans are flat-bottomed flare-sided pans specifically designed for baking pies.

A springform pan with pizza

List of cookware and bakeware

Baking pan

Beanpot

Chip pan

Cookie sheet

Cooking pot

Crepe pan

Double boiler

Doufeu

Dutch oven

Frying pan (also called Skillet)

Griddle (also called Tawa in Hindi)

Karahi

Kettle

Pan

Pressure cooker

Ramekin

Roasting pan

Roasting rack

Saucepan

Saucier

Saut pan

Splayed Saut pan

Souffl dish

Springform pan

Stock pot

Tajine

Tube pan [types include angel food cake pan and Bundt cake (Kugelhopf) pan]

Wok

Footnotes

^ Tannahill pg 13

^ Tannahill pg 14-16

^ Online Reader - Project Gutenberg

^ Tannahill pg 16, 96

^ a b Beard pg 174-175

^ a b c d Williams pg 8-9

^ "Aluminum and Alzheimer's disease". Facts about dementia. Alzheimer's Society. http://www.alzheimers.org.uk/Facts_about_dementia/Risk_factors/info_aluminium.htm. Retrieved October 14 2005. 

^ Shcherbatykh I, Carpenter DO (May 2007). "The role of metals in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease". J. Alzheimers Dis. 11 (2): 191205. PMID 17522444. 

^ Rondeau V, Commenges D, Jacqmin-Gadda H, Dartigues JF (July 2000). "Relation between aluminum concentrations in drinking water and Alzheimer's disease: an 8-year follow-up study". Am. J. Epidemiol. 152 (1): 5966. doi:10.1093/aje/152.1.59. PMID 10901330. 

^ Rondeau, V.; Jacqmin-Gadda, H.; Commenges, D.; Helmer, C.; Dartigues, F. (Feb 2009). "Aluminum and silica in drinking water and the risk of Alzheimer's disease or cognitive decline: findings from 15-year follow-up of the PAQUID cohort". American journal of epidemiology 169 (4): 489496. doi:10.1093/aje/kwn348. ISSN 0002-9262. PMID 19064650.  edit

^ Williams pg 9-10

^ www.cooksguide.co.uk

^ Independent Studies Show No Detectable Levels of PFOA in Cookware Using Teflon

^ Burros, Marian (2006-06-07). "In Search of a Pan That Lets Cooks Forget About Teflon". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/07/dining/07pans.html. 

^ Bird Safety

^ Find FAQ's about SiliconeZone Bakeware , Kitchenware, Automatic Coffee Machines & More at KitchenKapers.com

References

James Beard, et al. (1975). The Cooks' Catalogue. Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-011563-7. 

Reay Tannahill (1988). Food in History. Crown Publishers. ISBN 0-517-57186-2. 

Chuck Williams (1986). The Williams-Sonoma Cookbook and Guide to Kitchenware. Random House. ISBN 0-394-54411-0. 

See also

Kitchenware

List of food preparation utensils

Pressure cooking

Pottery

Cauldron

Gastronorm sizes (standard sizes of container)

Kitchenware Brands

Categories: Kitchenware | Cookware and bakewareHidden categories: Pages containing cite templates with deprecated parameters | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from March 2007

Nissan Pao

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Specifications

Vehicle type number: Nissan E-PK10

Models: bosch wiper blades

Pao w/5-speed manual transmission (PK10GF) or with 3-speed automatic PK10GA wiper blade refills

Pao canvas top w/ 5-speed manual transmission (PK10GFW) or with 3-speed automatic (PK10GAW) bosch wipers

Dimensions and weight

Length: 3,740 mm (147.2 in)

Width: 1,570 mm (61.8 in)

Height: 1,475 mm (58.1 in) - 1,480 mm (58.3 in)

Wheelbase: 2,300 mm (90.6 in)

Front/rear tread: 1,365 mm (53.7 in)1,355 mm (53.3 in)

Ground clearance: 165 mm (6.5 in)

Min. turning circle: 4.40 m (14.5 ft)

Seating capacity: 5 people

Vehicle weight: 720 kg (1,587.3 lb) - 760 kg (1,675.5 lb)

Gross vehicle weight (kg): 995 kg (2,193.6 lb) - 1,035 kg (2,281.8 lb)

Fuel consumption

City: 5-speed 5.4 L/100 km (44 mpg-US); automatic 6.9 L/100 km (34 mpg-US)

At steady 60 km/h (38 mph): 5-speed 3.4 L/100 km (69 mpg-US); automatic 4.3 L/100 km (55 mpg-US)

Engine

Type: MA10S

Water-cooled inline-4 cylinder

Cylinder bore and stroke: 68.0 x 68.0 mm

Total cubic displacement: 987 cc

Compression ratio: 9.5:1

Output (net): 52 PS (38 kW; 51 hp) at 6000 rpm

Largest torque (net): 75 Nm (55 lbft) at 3600 rpm

1-bbl carburettor

Fuel and tank capacity: unleaded regular, 40 L (~2,441 cu in)

Chassis

Steering type: rack and pinion

Suspension:

(front) independent suspension, struts

(rear) 4 link-axle, coil springs

Brakes: disc/drum

Tire size: 155SR12

Body colors

Aqua Gray (#FJ-0)

Olive Gray (#DJ-0)

Ivory (#EJ-I)

Terracotta (#AJ-0)

Interior colors

Ivory (#EJ-I)

Black (#EJ-I)

Standard equipment

Power steering and [shitorihuta] (driver's seat)

Electromagnetic glass hatch release

Height-adjustable driver's seat

Intermittent wiper

Tensionless ELR seat belts (front seats),

Radio (AM/FM, tape deck, electronic tuner)

2 rear loudspeakers

Options

Electric textile sun roof ("canvas top")

Automatic air conditioning

Manual air conditioner (Nissan Motor dealer option)

Stereo system (EC220 15W2, two speakers)

Upgraded stereo system (15W2, two speaker specifications, w/CD player)

CD player

Carrying Box (Built-to-order manufacturing product for stereo for exclusive use of a Pao, outside a car carrying outs)

Mag-style wheel covers

Sioux parser yl chains (for 155SR12)

Steel chains (for 155SR12)

Fog/driving lights (BOSCH PF-160 with white lenses or front steel bar with a set of yellow-lensed lights attached)

Fog lights (CIBIE with yellow lenses)

Clock (illuminated analog clock with alarm and date)

Mud guards, front and rear

Side visor (Stainless steel)

Door edge guards (stainless steel)

Car cover (polyester)

Front steel bar

Base roof rack for loads up to 30 kg/66 lb

Ski carrier (for up to four sets of skis)

Surfboard carrier (for up two surfboards)

Decal kit (PAO Decal and lettering)

Floor carpets

Fashion seat covers for front seats, reversible

Seat covers (for all seats)

Seat cushions

Steering wheel cover (real leather)

Tonneau cover

Anti-glare rear view mirror

Cup holder (for big and regular size cans)

Special tray for vehicle papers

Car care bag

Notes

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Nissan Pao

Pao Catalog

The Nissan Pao - Articles and Information

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Nissan Motor Company

Vehicles

Production

DC-3  100NX  1200  210  310  180SX  200SX  B10  B110  B-210  240SX  240Z  280ZX  300C  300ZX  350Z  370Z  510  810  Advan  Almera  Almera Tino  Altima  Altra(EV)  Aprio  Armada  Atlas  Avenir  Auster  Bassara  Be-1  Bluebird  Cabstar  Caravan  Cedric  Cefiro   Cherry  Cima  Civilian  Clipper  Crew  Cube  Datsun Truck  Dualis  Echo  Elgrand  Expert  Fairlady  Figaro  Frontier  Freeson  Fuga  Gazelle  Gloria  GT-R  Hardbody Truck  Hypermini  Homy  Laurel  Leopard  Lafesta  Liberty  Livina Geniss  Maxima  March  Mistral  Multi  Murano  Moco  Navara  Note  NV200  NX  Otti  Paladin  Pao  Pathfinder  Patrol  Pintara  Pino  Platina  Prairie  Presage  Presea  Primera  President  Pulsar  Pulsar GTI-R  Qashqai  Quest  R390 GT1  R'nessa  Rasheen  Roadster-Road Star  Rogue  S-Cargo  Safari  Saurus  Saurus Jr  Sentra  Serena  Silvia  Sileighty  Skyline  Skyline GT-R  Stanza  Stagea  Sunny  Teana  Terrano  Terrano II  Tiida  Titan  Urvan  Vanette  Versa  Violet  Wingroad  X-Trail  Xterra

Concept

126X  216X  270X  AA-X  Actic  AD-2  AL-X  Alpha Truck  Amenio  AP-X  ARC-X  AXY  AZEAL  Bevel  Boga  C-Note  Chapeau  Chappo  Cocoon  CQ-X  Crossbow  CUE-X  Cypact  Duad  Dunehawk  Effis  ESV  Evalia  FEV  Foria  Forum  Fusion  GR-1  GT-R  ideo  Jikoo  Judo  Jura  kino  KYXX  LEAF  MID4  Mixim  mm.e  Moco  Nails  NEO-X  NRV-II  NX-21  Pivo  Qazana  Redigo  Serenity  Sport Concept  Terranaut  Tone  Trailrunner  TRI-X  URGE  UV-X  Yanya  Zaroot

Engines

Straight-4

A  BD  C  CA  CD  CG  CR  D  E  FJ  G  GA  H  HR  J  KA  L  LD  MA  MR  NA  QD  QG  QR  SD  SR  TD  YD  Z  ZD

Straight-6

FD  H  L  LD  P  S20  RB  RD  SD  TB  TD

V6

VE  VG  VQ  VR

V8

VH  VK  Y

Tuners

Autech  Impul  Nismo

See also

Datsun  Infiniti (division)  Prince  Premium Factory   UD Nissan Diesel  VVL  VVEL  dCi

Categories: Nissan vehicles | Retro style automobiles | Vehicles introduced in 1989

Weathering steel

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Properties

"Weathering" means that due to their chemical compositions, these steels exhibit increased resistance to atmospheric corrosion compared to unalloyed steels. This is because the steel forms a protective layer on its surface under the influence of the weather.

The corrosion-retarding effect of the protective layer is produced by the particular distribution and concentration of alloying elements in it. The layer protecting the surface develops and regenerates continuously when subjected to the influence of the weather. pneumatic check valve

Chemical composition of Cor-ten grades smc air regulator

Grade taper lock

 %C

 %Si

 %Mn

 %P

 %S

 %Cr

 %Cu

 %V

 %Ni

Cor-ten A

0.12

0.25-0.75

0.20-0.50

0.07-0.15

0.030

0.50-1.25

0.25-0.55

0.65

Cor-ten B

0.16

0.30-0.50

0.80-1.25

0.030

0.030

0.40-0.65

0.25-0.40

0.02-0.10

0.40

The mechanical properties of weathering steels depend on which alloy and how thick the material is.

ASTM A 242

The original A 242 alloy has a yield strength of 50,000 pounds per square inch (340,000 kPa) and ultimate tensile strength of 70,000 psi (480,000 kPa) for light-medium rolled shapes and plates up to 0.75 inches (19 mm) thick. It has yield strength of 46,000 psi (320,000 kPa) and ultimate strength of 67,000 psi (460,000 kPa) for medium weight rolled shapes and plates from 0.751 inch (1925 mm) thick. The thickest rolled sections and plates from 1.54 in (38100 mm) thick have yield strength of 42,000 psi (290,000 kPa) and ultimate strength of 63,000 psi (430,000 kPa).

ASTM A 588

A 588 has a yield strength of at least 50,000 psi (340,000 kPa), and ultimate tensile strength of 70,000 psi (480,000 kPa) for all rolled shapes and plate thicknesses up to 4 in (100 mm) thick. Plates from 45 in (100130 mm) have yield strength at least 46,000 psi (320,000 kPa) and ultimate tensile strength at least 67,000 psi (460,000 kPa), and plates from 58 in (130200 mm) thick have yield strength at least 42,000 psi (290,000 kPa) and ultimate tensile strength at least 63,000 psi (430,000 kPa).

Usage

Weathering steel is popularly used in outdoor sculptures, such as in the large Chicago Picasso sculpture, and as exterior facades, for its rustic antique appearance. Examples include The Angel of the North, Gateshead, UK and the Humanites and Arts complex at Leeds Metropolitan University - Broadcasting Place - Leeds, UK

It has also been used in bridge and other large structural applications such as the New River Gorge Bridge, the newer span of the Newburgh-Beacon Bridge, and the creation of the Australian Centre for Contemporary Art (ACCA).

It is very widely used in marine transportation, in the construction of Intermodal containers.

The first use of COR-TEN for architectural applications was the John Deere World Headquarters in Moline, Illinois. The building was designed by architect Eero Saarinen, and completed in 1964. In 1977, Robert Indiana created a Hebrew version of the Love sculpture using the four letter word ahava ( "love" in Hebrew) made from COR-TEN, for the Israel Museum Art Garden in Jerusalem, Israel.

COR-TEN was used in 1971 for an order of electric railcars built by the St. Louis Car Company for Illinois Central Railroad. The use of COR-TEN was seen as a cost-cutting move in comparison with the contemporary railcar standard of stainless steel. A subsequent order in 1979 was built to similar specs, including COR-TEN bodies, by Bombardier. The cars were painted, a standard practice for COR-TEN railcars. However, the durability of COR-TEN did not live up to expectations, with rust holes appearing in the railcars. Ironically, painting may have contributed to the problem, as painted weathering steel is no more corrosion-resistant than conventional steel, because the protective patina will not form in time to prevent corrosion over a localized area of attack such as a small paint failure. Most of these railcars still operate out of Chicago.

Usage challenges

Using weathering steel in construction presents several challenges. Ensuring that weld-points weather at the same rate as the other materials may require special welding techniques or material. Weathering steel is not rustproof in itself. If water is allowed to accumulate in pockets, those areas will experience higher corrosion rates, so provision for drainage must be made. Weathering steel is sensitive to salt-laden air environments. In such environments, it is possible that the protective patina may not stabilize but instead continue to corrode. Hawaii's Aloha Stadium, built in 1975, is one example of this. The former Omni Coliseum, built in 1972 in Atlanta, Georgia, never stopped rusting, and eventually large holes appeared in the structure. This was a major factor in the decision to demolish it just 25 years after construction. Weathering steel's normal surface weathering can also lead to rust stains on nearby surfaces.

The U.S. Steel Tower in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania was constructed by U.S. Steel in part to showcase COR-TEN steel. The initial weathering of the material resulted in a discoloration of the surrounding city sidewalks, as well as other nearby buildings. A cleanup effort was orchestrated by the corporation once weathering was complete to undo this damage, but the sidewalks still have a decidedly rusty tinge. This problem has been reduced in newer formulations of weathering steel. Staining can be prevented if the structure can be detailed so that water does not drain from the steel onto concrete where stains would be visible.

References

^ http://www.uss.com/corp/trademarks.asp, accessed Oct. 31, 2007

^ Plate Products, 2003-10-31, http://web.archive.org/web/20071228143615/http://www.uss.com/corp/products/plate.htm, retrieved 2010-01-13. 

^ COR-TEN - Weather & Corrosion Resistant Steel: Technical Data, archived from the original on 2010-01-13, http://www.webcitation.org/5mkm6z6UZ, retrieved 2010-01-13. 

^ http://www.chapelsteel.com/A588.html, accessed Sept 21, 2006

^ Manual of Steel Construction, 8th Edition, Second Revised Printing, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, 1987; chapter 1 page 15

^ http://news.google.co.uk/news/url?sa=t&ct2=uk%2F0_0_s_4_0_t&usg=AFQjCNECcd8YzVj4xwFhAvipLt-EIHTvYA&cid=0&ei=1Vj_StDtNKKEjAeE4Nr4Ag&rt=SEARCH&vm=STANDARD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bdonline.co.uk%2Fstory.asp%3Fsectioncode%3D426%26storycode%3D3152952%26channel%3D426%26c%3D2%26encCode%3D0000000001a704e4

^ "Shipping Container Homes Globally". http://www.containerhomes-info.com/. Retrieved 2009-05-24. 

^ For pictures see http://people.ku.edu/~dunville

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: COR-TEN-Steel

Report on Performance of Weathering Steel in Highway Bridges from the American Iron and Steel Institute

Report on Weathering Steel in TxDOT Bridges from the Texas Department of Transportation (4464 KB). Contains recommended details to avoid staining. Note: wrapping of piers was later found not to be cost-effective.

H.B. No. 282: House Bill 282 regarding Aloha Stadium

Stadium rust to get $12.4M treatment an article from the Honolulu Advertiser

A Primer on Weathering Steel: a white paper from the National Steel Bridge Alliance

Corten FAQ from the American Institute of Steel Construction

Weathering steel: A technical overview of weathering steels for bridges and general construction

Categories: Steels | Sculpture materials

Stainless steel strainer

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A stainless steel strainer is a perforated (punched holes) metal part used in household water systems to strain or filter out debris in the water system, sink, or shower/bathtub. They are often installed in a domestic water line, kitchen sinks, showers, etc. They can be made of Stainless steel AISI 304, 202 etc. matte inkjet paper

Water lines or kitchen systems can get gravel, deposits that break free, and other stray items in the line. Due to the velocity of the water pushing them, they can severely damage or clog devices installed in the flow stream of the water line. A strainer is essentially a screen installed to allow water to pass through, but not larger items. The larger items fall to the bottom or are held in a basket for later clean out. They normally have an access that allows for them to be cleaned or have the strainer plate or basket replaced. inkjet glossy photo paper

Strainers come is several different styles based on the needs. A plate strainer is the simplest, in which water flows through a perforated plate. Often the plate is corrugated shape to increase surface area. A basket strainer is a design where the strainer is shaped like a basket and usually installed in a vertical system. The basket strainer is easier to clean, since debris is captured in the basket. It can also sometimes offer more straining surface area than a plate strainer, improving flow rates, or decreasing pressure loss through the strainer. adhesive inkjet paper

Strainer elements are generally made from Stainless steel for corrosion resistance.

Stainless Steel Strainers

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ALL

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Business

ALL FM, a radio station in Manchester, England

ALL, an acronym for Amrica Latina Logstica linksys secure network

ALL, the ISO 4217 currency code for the Albanian Lek glc fe 100fx

Chemistry atheros mini pci

All, an abbreviation for allyl

Computability

ALL (complexity), the class of all decision problems in computability and complexity theory

Linguistics

ALL, an abbreviation for allative case

Medicince

ALL, an acronym for acute lymphoblastic leukemia

ALL, an acronym for anterior longitudinal ligament

Music

Artists

All (band), a punk rock band

All, the pseudonym of Jim Berger

Albums

All (AAA album), a 2007 album by AAA

All (All album), a 1999 compilation album by All

All (Descendents album), a 1987 album by the Descendents

Songs

"All" (song), the United Kingdom entry in the 1957 Eurovision Song Contest

Philosophy

The All, a Hermetic conception of God

All, a concept of universal quantification in predicate logic

Politics

ALL, an acronym for the Alliance of the Libertarian Left

ALL, an acronym for the American Life League

Products

All (detergent), a laundry detergent

Sports

ALL, an acronym for the American Lacrosse League

ALL, an acronym for the Australian Lacrosse League

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title.

If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

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