Cirrus Logic

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Brief History

Patil Systems, Inc., is founded in Salt Lake City in 1981, by Dr. Suhas Patil and renamed as Cirrus Logic when it moved to Silicon Valley in 1984 to focus on solutions for the growing PC components market. Michael Hackworth was named president and chief executive officer in January 1985, and served as CEO until February 1999. It joined the Nasdaq market listing in 1989 (symbol: CRUS). Cirrus Logic acquired Crystal Semiconductor, a leading supplier of analog and mixed-signal converter ICs, in 1991. In the early 1990s, Cirrus Logic became a leading supplier of PC graphics chips, audio converters and chips for magnetic storage products. David D. French joined Cirrus Logic, Inc., as president and chief operating officer in June 1998 and was named chief executive officer in February 1999. Soon after joining the company, through an acquisition strategy Mr. French repositioned the company into a premier supplier of high-performance analog and digital processing chip solutions for consumer entertainment electronics. In June 2005, Cirrus Logic sold its video products operation to an investment firm, creating privately-owned Magnum Semiconductor. After resigning in March 2007, Jason Rhode, formerly the vice president and general manager of Cirrus' Mixed Signal Audio Division, was named president and CEO in May 2007. Today, Cirrus Logic is focused on its high-precision technologies for digital signal processing components for audio and energy markets.

Timeline of key events patch panel cat 5e

1981 Patil Systems Inc. is founded in Salt Lake City by Dr. Suhas Patil. Company focuses on IC solutions for the growing PC components market. cat5 patch panel

1984 Patil Systems Inc. renamed Cirrus Logic and moves headquarters to Silicon Valley 5e patch panel

1989 Company goes public and is listed on the Nasdaq exchange under the ticker symbol CRUS.

1991 Cirrus Logic acquires Crystal Semiconductor, a leading supplier of analog and mixed-signal converter ICs.

1996 Cirrus Logic exits from the PC graphics card business

1998 David D. French joins company as president and chief operating officer in June and becomes chief executive officer in February 1999. In the fall, company spins out its communication business unit.

2001 Cirrus Logic announces plan to begin exit from magnetic storage chip business.

2001 Cirrus Logic acquires several start-up companies with technologies in video decoding, video encoding, wireless networking, and networked digital audio.

2003 Cirrus Logic closes wireless networking operations.

2005 Cirrus Logic sells video product assets to investment firm, creating Magnum Semiconductor (company maintains minority equity position).

2007 Jason Rhode, formerly vice president and general manager of Cirrus' Mixed-Signal Audio division, is named president and chief executive officer, replacing French who resigned in March. In July, Cirrus Logic acquires Apex Microtechnology, a leading provider of high-power products for industrial and aerospace markets.

Graphics history

CL-GD5429 VLB

In the early 1990s, Cirrus Logic was a leading supplier of low-cost PC graphics chips. Cirrus's Microsoft Windows 2D GUI accelerators (GDI) were among the fastest in the low-end market-segment, outperforming competing VGA-chips from Oak Technologies, Trident Microsystems, and Paradise (Western Digital). For example, the Cirrus GD5422 (1992) supported hardware acceleration for both 8-bit color and 16-bit color. It was one of the lowest-priced SVGA controllers to support both.

By the mid-1990s, when PC's had migrated to the PCI bus, Cirrus had fallen behind S3 and Trident Microsystems. When the announced release date of the GD5470 "Mondello" came and went, Cirrus's reputation in desktop PC-graphics suffered. (Mondello would have been the company's first 3D-accelerator, but instead became vaporware.)

The company's final graphics chips, the GD546x "Laguna" series of PCI/AGP 3D-accelerators, were novel in that they were one of the few video cards to use Rambus RDRAM. However, like many other 2D/3D chips at the time, the feature set of perspective-correct texture mapping, bilinear filtering, single-pass lighting, gouraud shading, and alpha blending, was both slow and incomplete.

Graphics chipsets

CL-GD5464 "Laguna 3D"

DESKTOP

CL-GD410 + 420 - ISA SVGA chipset, Video 7 VEGA VGA (1987)

CL-GD510 + 520 - ISA SVGA "Eagle II" chipset, known for 100% CGA emulation. (1988)

CL-GD5320 - ISA SVGA chipset. (1990)

CL-GD5401 - ISA SVGA chipset, also known as Acumos VGA (AVGA1)

CL-GD5402 - ISA SVGA chipset, also known as Acumos VGA (AVGA2)

CL-GD5410 - ISA SVGA chipset, Low-to-mid-end DRAM-based cards (accelerated), some laptop chipsets. Known for integrating graphic card components into one chip (built-in RAMDAC and clock generators) at an early point. (1991)

CL-GD5420 - ISA SVGA chipset, highly integrated (15 bit RAMDAC + PLL), 1 MB.

CL-GD5421 - ISA SVGA chipset, highly integrated (15/16 bit RAMDAC + PLL), 1 MB.

CL-GD5422 - Enhanced version of the 5420 (32-bit internal memory interface, 15/16/24 bit RAMDAC. An ISA video card carrying this chipset offered 1280x1024 interlaced max resolution).

CL-GD5424 - VLB version of the 5422, but resembles the 5426 in some respects.

CL-GD5425 - True color VGA controller w/ TV out.

CL-GD5426 - Hardware BitBLT engine. ISA bus and VLB up to 2 MB of memory.

CL-GD5428 - Enhanced version of the 5426. Faster BITBLT engine.

CL-GD5429 - Enhanced version of the 5428; supports higher memory clock and has memory-mapped I/O.

CL-GD5430 - Similar to 5429, but with 543x core (32-bit host interface).

CL-GD5434 - Alpine family chip with 64-bit internal memory interface. Only supports 64-bit mode if equipped with 2 MB of video memory; commonly equipped with 1 MB, extendable to 2 MB.

CL-GD5436 - An optimized 5434.

CL-GD5440 - 5430 with motion-video acceleration. (CL-GD54M40 has integrated filters.)

CL-GD5446 - 64-bit Alpine VisualMedia accelerator. 2D-only; adds motion-video acceleration to the CL-GD5436.

CL-GD546X - The Laguna VisualMedia family of 2D, 3D, and video accelerators. '64 and '65 include 3D acceleration. (PCI, AGP). These chips use a single channel of RDRAM memory, providing up to 600 MB/s bandwidth. The '62 lacks 3D acceleration. All include a BitBLT engine, video windows, and 64x64 hardware cursor.

CL-GD5480 - 64-bit Alpine accelerator with 100 MHz SGRAM

MOBILE

CL-GD610 + 620 - (1989)

CL-GD6420/6440 Used in some laptops, similar to older Cirrus chipsets (5410/AVGA2).

CL-GD6205/6215/6225/6235 - Compatible with the 5420.

CL-GD7541/7542/7543/7548 - Compatible with the 5428/3x.

See also

Graphics card

Graphics processing unit

References

^ "Company Profile for Cirrus Logic Inc (CRUS)". http://www.zenobank.com/index.php?symbol=CRUS&page=quotesearch. Retrieved 2008-10-23. 

External links

Cirrus Web Site

Categories: Companies listed on NASDAQ | Fabless semiconductor companies | Graphics hardware companies | Companies established in 1981 | Companies based in Austin, TexasHidden categories: Articles needing cleanup from October 2007 | All pages needing cleanup

The Trouble with Trillions

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Plot

On January 1, right after New Year's Eve, Ned completes his yearly taxes. Later that year, just before midnight on April 15, Homer realizes he did not file his tax return. He rushes and provides false information before driving to the post office. When the tax returns are sent to the IRS, Homer's oddly-packaged return fatefully bounces into the "Severe Audit" bin. The IRS discovers Homer's fraud and arrests him. Held by the government, Homer says he will do anything to stay out of prison. Agent Johnson of the FBI decides that Homer can be useful. With a hidden microphone under his shirt, Homer uncovers that his co-worker Charlie leads a group planning to assault all government officials.

With his superiors impressed, Johnson sends Homer on a secret mission. They reveal that in 1945, President Harry Truman printed a one trillion-dollar bill (with his photo on it) to help reconstruct post-war Europe. He handed the bill over to Montgomery Burns to transport to the Europeans. However, the money never arrived and the FBI suspects Burns still has the money with him. As satellite photography can only confirm that the trillion-dollar bill is not on the roof of Burn's home, Homer is sent in to investigate. Arriving at Burns's estate, Homer searches for the money before Burns, who believes Homer is a reporter from Collier's magazine, reveals that he kept the money on his person. Johnson and Agent Miller burst in and arrests Burns for grand-grand-grand-grand-larceny. Burns shouts how the US government oppresses the average American and tells Homer to write, "Don't let the government push you around!" in his article. Moved by Burns's speech, Homer knocks out the FBI agents and frees Burns. bed sheet satin

The three men meet with Fidel Castro. daybed bedding set

The two men hurry to obtain Smithers for help, who suggests they leave the country. Burns takes Smithers and Homer in his old plane, setting off to find an island and start a new country. Over the Caribbean, Burns finds a fine island, although it already has a name and is in fact the country, Cuba. Going before Fidel Castro (after learning, much to the surprise of both Burns and Simpson, that Batista is no longer leader of Cuba), Burns fails to buy the island when Fidel asks to see the trillion dollar bill, and is handed the bill. When Burns asks for it back, Castro responds: "Give what back?". Then, the episode immediately cuts to a scene where Burns, Smithers, and Homer are on a make-shift raft. Burns announces he will merely bribe the jury when Smithers, Homer, and himself are put on trial, prompting Homer to exclaim "God bless America!" and salute. flannel sheets king

Production

The episode was written by Ian Maxtone-Graham, though the original draft of the plot was much different. Originally, Homer was to learn that he was a Native American, and would try to exploit it to not have to pay taxes. The idea had been going well for a few days, but the staff did not actually know whether Native Americans had to pay taxes. When the writers found out that they did, the whole plot had to be discarded. Executive producer Mike Scully's brother Brian pitched the idea of the trillion dollar bill, which they accepted, as they were out of ideas.

Cultural references

The title of this episode refers to the Star Trek episode "The Trouble with Tribbles". The scene where it is April 15 when the post office is crowded, Kent Brockman asks Otto why he left his tax return to the last minute and replies "Tax returns? Isn't this the line for Metallica?" The scene where the FBI agent sits near Homer is a reference to the film JFK. While Homer, Mr. Burns, and Smithers are in Cuba, a billboard can be seen with a picture of Che Guevara being used to advertise Duff Beer. Burns seems to own the suit Charlie Chaplin was buried in, probably a reference to Chaplin's corpse being stolen after his death. Agent Johnson of the FBI is probably a reference to the two Agent Johnsons in Die Hard.

Reception

The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, did not enjoy the episode, calling it, "Rather dull and unfunny," and, "A mediocre episode at best that makes Burns out to be altruistic (which he's not) and very stupid in letting Castro have his money (which he so wouldn't)." The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of "The 10 Best Simpsons TV Episodes." The article noted the episode contained "one of the few gags in comedy history about relying too heavily on surveillance photography in spying."

Ian Jones and Steve Williams criticized all of season 9 for lacking an episode that centered around Burns, as they consider Burns to be the crux of many good episodes, though they noted that "The Trouble with Trillions" came the closest, with Burns having a supporting role. In a review of the ninth season of The Simpsons, Isaac Mitchell-Frey of the Herald Sun described the episode as "brilliant", and highlighted it along with episodes "Bart Carny" and "The Joy of Sect".

The episode was screened on BBC Two in January 1999, before any other episode from season six or later were seen by terrestrial viewers in the UK, as part of a night of Cuba-themed programmes.

References

^ a b c d Martyn, Warren; Wood, Adrian (2000). "The Trouble with Trillions". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/simpsons/episodeguide/season9/page20.shtml. Retrieved 2007-11-03. 

^ a b c Gimple, Scott (1999). The Simpsons Forever!: A Complete Guide to Our Favorite Family ...Continued. Harper Collins Publishers. p. 36. ISBN 0-06-098763-4. 

^ "The Trouble with Trillions" The Simpsons.com. Retrieved on November 3, 2007

^ Scully, Mike. (2006). The Simpsons season 9 DVD commentary for the episode "The Trouble with Trillions". [DVD]. 20th Century Fox. 

^ Maxtone-Graham, Ian. (2006). The Simpsons season 9 DVD commentary for the episode "The Trouble with Trillions". [DVD]. 20th Century Fox. 

^ a b Walton, James (July 21, 2007). "The 10 Best Simpsons TV Episodes (In Chronological Order)". The Daily Telegraph: pp. Page 3. 

^ Ian Jones, Steve Williams. ""NOW LET US NEVER SPEAK OF IT AGAIN"". Off The Telly. http://www.offthetelly.co.uk/comedy/simpsons/decade.htm. Retrieved 2007-11-04. 

^ Mitchell-Frey, Isaac (February 11, 2007). "Comedy - The Simpsons, Series 9". Herald Sun: p. E12. 

External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: "The Trouble with Trillions"

The Simpsons portal

"The Trouble with Trillions" at The Simpsons.com

"The Trouble with Trillions" episode capsule at The Simpsons Archive

"The Trouble with Trillions" at TV.com

"The Trouble with Trillions" at the Internet Movie Database

Categories: The Simpsons episodes, season 9 | 1998 television episodes

Cycling power meter

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Usage

Training using a power meter is increasingly popular. Most power meters also measure and display heart rate as well as riding speed, distance and time. Power meters provide an objective measurement of real output that allows training progress to be tracked very simplyomething that is more difficult when using, for example, a heart rate monitor alone. Cyclists will often train at different intensities depending on the adaptations they are seeking. A common practice is to use different intensity zones. When training with power, these zones are usually calculated from the power output corresponding to the so called lactate threshold or MAP (maximal aerobic power).

Power meters provide instant feedback to the rider about their performance and measure their actual output; heart rate monitors measure the physiological effect of effort and therefore ramp up more slowly. Thus, an athlete performing "interval" training while using a power meter can instantly see that they are producing 300 watts, for example, instead of waiting for their heart rate to climb to a certain point. In addition, power meters measure the force that moves the bike forward multiplied by the velocity, which is the desired goal. This has two significant advantages over heart rate monitors: 1) An athlete's heart rate may remain constant over the training period, yet their power output is declining, which they cannot detect with a heart rate monitor; 2) While an athlete who is not rested or not feeling entirely well may train at their normal heart rate, they are unlikely to be producing their normal power heart rate monitor will not reveal this, but a power meter will. Finally, power meters enable rider to experiment with cadence and evaluate its effect relative to speed and heart rate. bath bubble spa

Interfaces electric massager

Most cycling power meters use a set of wires to transmit power information to a computer mounted on the bicycle; this system has a serious disadvantage of having fine electrical cables being run all over the bicycle, making it harder to clean as well as using a fair number of fasteners to hold them up. However as of late 2008/early 2009, there is a general trend to move towards wireless systems . A popular wireless system is ANT+ by ANT. Currently, Garmin, Quarq, SRM (Schoberer_Rad_Metechnik) and PowerTap have deployed this interface for various purposes on the bicycle. electric massagers

Power meter types

Crankset

Crankset power meters measure the torque applied to both pedals via strain gauges positioned within the crank spider. A calculation of power is derived from the deflection of the strain gauges and pedaling cadence.

These units require specific cranksets, but can be relatively simple to interchange between bikes depending on compatibility.

Bottom bracket

Bottom bracket power meters rely on the torsional deflection in the BB shaft, this is done by the shaft having a disc at each end with perforations, these perforations are detected using non-contact photo-electric sensors that detect when torque is applied to the left pedal and then doubled. Data is sent digitally to a handlebar mounted computer unit.

These units are difficult to interchange and require a different bottom bracket unit for each bike. The only company producing such systems, Ergomo, went into liquidation in 2008.

bottom bracket with connection cables

Freehub

A freehub power meter uses the same strain gauges that are present in the crank power meters but are located in the rear wheel hub and measure the power after the drive chain, because of this, power should theoretically be measured less than the crank based power meters. Because these units are built into the rear wheel it is simple to interchange between bikes as long as the wheels are compatible.

Chain

At the heart of chain units is essentially a guitar pick-up that mounts to the cycle's chain stay. With this system the pick up detects the chain vibration and speed and mathematically converts it to a power output.

Opposing force

This method of power measurement relies on Newton's Third Law: applied and opposing forces must be equal. Crankset, bottom bracket, freehub, and chain systems measure applied forces and, therefore, require placement of sensors near the bike pedal. Opposing force power meters measure hill slope (gravity), wind speed, bike acceleration (inertia), and frictional drag. Opposing force power meters place all key sensors in the computer head, resulting in lighter weight, extreme bike-to-bike portability, and lower cost.

Applied force

This method monitors the forces applied to the pedal by the cyclist's foot. Sensors in the shoe or pedal measure the forces as the cranks rotate, and calculate the power based on the magnitude and direction of the applied force, and the angular velocity of the crank. Advantages of this technique include independent measurement of power for each leg, measurement of efficiency of pedaling style, and (depending on placement of sensors) avoiding the need to replace bike components. No commercial system using this technique is available yet for use outside a laboratory although at least two (Brim Brothers and MetriGear) have been announced as in development.

Manufacturers

SRM Training System, a torque-measuring crankset

PowerTap, a torque-measuring hub that is built into a wheel

Polar S-710i or CS600, uses a chain vibration sensor that mounts on the right chainstay

iBike Pro, a handle-bar mounted power meter that measures the cyclist's output by measuring opposing forces

Quarq, a torque measuring device that mounts on the crankset spider

Brim Brothers, a force measuring system fitted in the cleat on the cyclist's shoe

MetriGear, integrated into the hollow spindle of stock bicycle pedals.

See also

Bicycle performance

References

^ http://www.thisisant.com/pages/ant/interoperability-matrix

External links

Book: Training and Racing with a Power Meter

Comprehensive Power Meter Review

Power: The Ultimate Training Metric

Power Meter Project 2007

Wattage Google Group (membership required, but free to join)

Watts Per Kilogram - Improving Cycling Performance

Categories: Bicycle parts

Kempele

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History

First permanent inhabitants settled in Kempele area approximately 500 years ago at that time coast line was closer than what it is today. Kempele was part of Greater Liminka and consisted only of three houses in 1568 when the area was called as Kempele first time in official context. Full church privileges were granted to Kempele in 1774, which also meant separation from Liminka. Municipality administration was established in 1867.

Sights large clitoris

The old wooden church was built between 16881691. hooded leather

The old wooden church of Kempele, which was built in late 17th century, is one of the oldest wooden churches in Finland. Originally Kempele was granted rights to build up a praying room in 1688, but local parishioners decided to construct a church with steeple. As it was typical at that time to bury local notable persons under the church building, also in Kempele there are approximately 150 graves last of them from 1796. double ended dildo

Even though the old church is not anymore in active use after the new one was build next to it in 1990s, some activities are still kept in there.

Kempele may be best known, however, for being the headquarters of the world-famous heart rate monitor corporation, Polar Electro, which first innovated this product in 1978.

References

^ "Area by municipality as of 1 January 2009" (in Finnish and Swedish) (PDF). Land Survey of Finland. http://www.maanmittauslaitos.fi/Pintaalat_kunnittain_1.1.2009.pdf. Retrieved 20 February 2009. 

^ "Population by municipality as of 31 December 2009" (in Finnish and Swedish). Population Information System. Population Register Center of Finland. http://www.vrk.fi/vrk/files.nsf/files/4AD425C09E8E9093C22576AA001D7112/$file/091231.htm. Retrieved 13 January 2010. 

^ "Population according to language and the number of foreigners and land area km2 by area as of 31 December 2008". Statistics Finland's PX-Web databases. Statistics Finland. http://pxweb2.stat.fi/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=060_vaerak_tau_107_fi&ti=V%E4est%F6+kielen+mukaan+sek%E4+ulkomaan+kansalaisten+m%E4%E4r%E4+ja+maa%2Dpinta%2Dala+alueittain++1980+%2D+2008&path=../Database/StatFin/vrm/vaerak/&lang=3&multilang=fi. Retrieved 29 March 2009. 

^ "Population according to age and gender by area as of 31 December 2008". Statistics Finland's PX-Web databases. Statistics Finland. http://pxweb2.stat.fi/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=050_vaerak_tau_104_fi&ti=V%E4est%F6+i%E4n+%281%2Dv%2E%29+ja+sukupuolen+mukaan+alueittain+1980+%2D+2008&path=../Database/StatFin/vrm/vaerak/&lang=3&multilang=fi. Retrieved 28 April 2009. 

^ "List of municipal and parish tax rates in 2010". Tax Administration of Finland. 24 November 2009. http://www.vero.fi/download.asp?id=5853;25512. Retrieved 13 January 2010. 

External links

Media related to Kempele at Wikimedia Commons

Municipality of Kempele

Map of Kempele

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Municipalities of Northern Ostrobothnia

Municipalities

Alavieska  Haapajrvi  Haapavesi  Hailuoto  Haukipudas  Ii  Kalajoki  Kempele  Kiiminki  Kuusamo  Krsmki  Liminka  Lumijoki  Merijrvi  Muhos  Nivala  Oulainen  Oulu  Oulunsalo  Pudasjrvi  Pyhjoki  Pyhjrvi  Pyhnt  Raahe  Reisjrvi  Sievi  Siikajoki  Siikalatva  Taivalkoski  Tyrnv  Utajrvi  Vihanti  Yli-Ii  Ylivieska

Former municipalities

Kestil  Kuivaniemi  Oulujoki  Paavola  Pattijoki  Piippola  Pulkkila  Rantsila  Rautio  Revonlahti  Ruukki  Saloinen  Temmes  Ylikiiminki

Northern Ostrobothnia  Finland

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Feel free to edit the template, but the template must not be blanked, and this notice must not be removed, until the discussion is closed. For more information, read the guide to deletion.

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Categories: Municipalities of Northern Ostrobothnia Region | Settlements established in 1867 | Oulu Province geography stubsHidden categories: Articles containing Finnish language text

AMD K6

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Background

The AMD K6 architecture.

The AMD K6 is a superscalar Pentium-class microprocessor, manufactured by AMD, which superseded the K5. It was co-developed by Vinod Dham, lead designer of the Intel P5 microarchitecture. The AMD K6 is based on the Nx686 microprocessor that NexGen was designing when it was acquired by AMD. Despite the name implying a design evolving from the K5, it is in fact a totally different design that was created by the NexGen team and adapted after the AMD purchase. The K6 processor included a feedback dynamic instruction reordering mechanism, MMX instructions, and a floating-point unit (FPU). It was also made pin-compatible with Intel's Pentium, enabling it to be used in the widely available "Socket 7"-based motherboards. Like the Nx686 and Nx586 before it, the K6 translated the Pentium compatible x86 instruction set to RISC-like micro-instructions. A later variation of the K6 CPU, K6-2, added floating point-based SIMD instructions, called 3DNow!. microsoft trackball mouse

The K6 was originally launched in April 1997, running at speeds of 166 and 200 MHz. It was followed by a 233 MHz version later in 1997. Initially, the AMD K6 processors used a Pentium II-based performance rating (PR2) to designate their speed. The PR2 rating was dropped because the rated frequency of the processor was the same as the real frequency. The release of the 266 MHz version of this chip was not until the second quarter of 1998 when AMD was able to move to the 0.25 micrometre manufacturing process. The lower voltage and higher multiplier of the K6-266 meant that it was not 100% compatible with some Socket 7 motherboards, similar to the later K6-2 processors. The final iteration of the K6 design was released in May 1998 running at 300 MHz. ergonomic computer mouse

Many viewed the K6 and the acquisition of NexGen as the moment that AMD was put back into the Intel compatible processor market. The actual K6 AMD had been designing was anemic compared to NexGen's design. With the buyout of NexGen, AMD was able to come back into the game with a processor that could perform competitively with Intel's Pentium II. rechargeable wireless mouse

Models

Original K6 (Model 6)

K6 "Little Foot" (Model 7)

K6 (Model 6)

8.8 million transistors in 350 nm

L1-Cache: 32 + 32 KB (Data + Instructions)

MMX

Socket 7

Front side bus: 66 MHz

First release: April 2, 1997

VCore: 2.9 V (166/200) 3.2/3.3 V (233)

Clockrate: 166, 200, 233 MHz

K6 "Little Foot" (Model 7)

CPUID: Family 5, Model 7, Stepping 0

8.8 million transistors in 250 nm

L1-Cache: 32 + 32 KB (Data + Instructions)

MMX

Socket 7

Front side bus: 66 MHz

First release: January 6, 1998

VCore: 2.2 V

Clockrate: 200, 233, 266, 300 MHz

References

Further reading

Gwennap, Linley (31 March 1997). "K6 Is World's Fastest x86 Chip". Microprocessor Report.

Slater, Michael (28 October 1998). "K6 to Boost AMD's Position in 1997". Microprocessor Report.

External links

AMD: Mobile AMD-K6 Processor

Intel's Enemy No. 1: The AMD K6 CPU

AMD K6, first of an impressive dynasty

Technical overview of the AMD-K6 series

Pictures of AMD-K6 chips at CPUShack.com

AMD K6 technical specifications

technical dissection of the 6th generation x86 CPUs

v  d  e

AMD processors

Discontinued

Am2900  Am29000  Am9080  Am286  Am386  Am486  Am5x86  K5  K6  K6-2  K6-III  Duron  Athlon  Mobile Athlon 64  Alchemy

Current

Geode  Sempron  Athlon 64 (Athlon Neo)  Athlon X2  Phenom (Phenom II)  Athlon II   Turion  Opteron

Future

Fusion (Bulldozer  Bobcat)

Microarchitectures

K7  K8  K9  K10

Lists

Am2900  Duron  Athlon  Athlon XP  Sempron  Athlon 64  Athlon X2  Phenom  Turion  Opteron  Future Microprocessors

Instruction sets

3DNow!  SSE4a  XOP  FMA4  CVT16

Categories: 1997 introductions | Advanced Micro Devices x86 microprocessorsHidden categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating text from FOLDOC | Articles lacking in-text citations from February 2008 | All articles lacking in-text citations

Rebar

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Use in concrete and masonry

Concrete is a material that is very strong in compression, but relatively weak in tension. To compensate for this imbalance in concrete's behavior, rebar is cast into it to carry the tensile loads.

Masonry structures and the mortar holding them together have similar properties to concrete and also have a limited ability to carry tensile loads. Some standard masonry units like blocks and bricks are made with strategically placed voids to accommodate rebar, which is then secured in place with grout. This combination is known as reinforced masonry. timer pill box

While any material with sufficient tensile strength could conceivably be used to reinforce concrete, steel and concrete have similar coefficients of thermal expansion: a concrete structural member reinforced with steel will experience minimal stress as a result of differential expansions of the two interconnected materials caused by temperature changes. pill containers

Physical characteristics pill organizers

Steel has an expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern concrete. If this weren't so, it would cause problems through additional longitudinal and perpendicular stresses at temperatures different than the temperature of the setting. Although rebar has ribs that bind it mechanically to the concrete, it can still be pulled out of the concrete under high stresses, an occurrence that often precedes a larger-scale collapse of the structure. To prevent such a failure, rebar is either deeply embedded into adjacent structural members (40-60 times the diameter), or bent and hooked at the ends to lock it around the concrete and other rebar. This first approach increases the friction locking the bar into place, while the second makes use of the high compressive strength of concrete.

Common rebar is made of unfinished tempered steel, making it susceptible to rusting. Normally the concrete cover is able to provide a pH value higher than 12 avoiding the corrosion reaction. Too little concrete cover can compromise this guard through carbonation from the surface. Too much concrete cover can cause bigger crack widths which also compromises the local guard. As rust takes up greater volume than the steel from which it was formed, it causes severe internal pressure on the surrounding concrete, leading to cracking, spalling, and ultimately, structural failure. This is a particular problem where the concrete is exposed to salt water, as in bridges built in areas where salt is applied to roadways in winter, or in marine applications. Epoxy-coated, galvanized or stainless steel rebars may be employed in these situations at greater initial expense, but significantly lower expense over the service life of the project. Especially epoxy-coated have to be installed with great care, because even small cracks and failures in the coating can lead to intensified local chemical reactions not visible at the surface.

Fiber-reinforced polymer rebar is now also being used in high-corrosion environments. It is available in many forms, from spirals for reinforcing columns, to the common rod, to meshes and many other forms. Most commercially available rebars are made from unidirectional glassfibre reinforced thermoset resins.

Rebar sizes and grades

U.S. Imperial sizes

Imperial bar designations represent the bar diameter in fractions of 18 inch, such that #8 = 88 inch = 1 inch diameter. Area = (bar size/9)2 such that area of #8 = (8/9)2 = 0.79 in2. This applies to #8 bars and smaller. Larger bars have a slightly larger diameter than the one computed using the 18 inch convention.

Imperial

Bar Size

"Soft"

Metric Size

Weight

(lbt)

Weight

(kg/m)

Nominal Diameter

(in)

Nominal Diameter

(mm)

Nominal Area

(in)

Nominal Area

(mm)

#3

#10

0.376

0.561

0.375 = 38

9.525

0.11

71

#4

#13

0.668

0.996

0.500 = 48

12.7

0.20

129

#5

#16

1.043

1.556

0.625 = 58

15.875

0.31

200

#6

#19

1.502

2.24

0.750 = 68

19.05

0.44

284

#7

#22

2.044

3.049

0.875 = 78

22.225

0.60

387

#8

#25

2.670

3.982

1.000 = 88

25.4

0.79

509

#9

#29

3.400

5.071

1.128

28.65

1.00

645

#10

#32

4.303

6.418

1.270

32.26

1.27

819

#11

#36

5.313

7.924

1.410

35.81

1.56

1006

#14

#43

7.650

11.41

1.693

43

2.25

1452

#18

#57

13.60

20.284

2.257

57.33

4.00

2581

Canadian metric sizes

Metric bar designations represent the nominal bar diameter in millimeters, rounded to the nearest 5 mm.

Metric

Bar Size

Mass

(kg/m)

Nominal Diameter

(mm)

Cross-Sectional

Area (mm)

10M

0.785

11.3

100

15M

1.570

16.0

200

20M

2.355

19.5

300

25M

3.925

25.2

500

30M

5.495

29.9

700

35M

7.850

35.7

1000

45M

11.775

43.7

1500

55M

19.625

56.4

2500

European metric sizes

Metric bar designations represent the nominal bar diameter in millimetres. Bars in Europe will be specified to comply with the standard EN 10080 (awaiting introduction as of early 2007), although various national standards still remain in force (e.g. BS 4449 in the United Kingdom).

Metric

Bar Size

Mass

(kg/m)

Nominal Diameter

(mm)

Cross-Sectional

Area (mm)

6,0

0.222

6

28.3

8,0

0.395

8

50.3

10,0

0.617

10

78.5

12,0

0.888

12

113

14,0

1.21

14

154

16,0

1.579

16

201

20,0

2.467

20

314

25,0

3.855

25

491

28,0

4.83

28

616

32,0

6.316

32

804

40,0

9.868

40

1257

50,0

15.413

50

1963

Grades

Rebar is available in different grades and specifications that vary in yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, chemical composition, and percentage of elongation.

The grade designation is equal to the minimum yield strength of the bar in ksi (1000 psi) for example grade 60 rebar has a minimum yield strength of 60 ksi. Rebar is typically manufactured in grades 40, 60, and 75.

Common specification are:

ASTM A 615 Deformed and plain carbon-steel bars for concrete reinforcement

ASTM A 706 Low-alloy steel deformed and plain bars for concrete reinforcement

ASTM A 955 Deformed and plain stainless-steel bars for concrete reinforcement

ASTM A 996 Rail-steel and axle-steel deformed bars for concrete reinforcement

Historically in Europe, rebar is composed of mild steel material with a yield strength of approximately 250 N/mm. Modern rebar is composed of high-yield steel, with a yield strength more typically 500 N/mm. Rebar can be supplied with various grades of ductility, with the more ductile steel capable of absorbing considerably greater energy when deformed - this can be of use in design to resist the forces from earthquakes for example.

Placing rebar

Rebar cages are fabricated either on or off the project site commonly with the help of hydraulic benders and shears, however for small or custom work a tool known as a Hickey - or hand rebar bender, is sufficient. The rebars are placed by rodbusters or concrete reinforcing ironworkers with bar supports separating the rebar from the concrete forms to establish concrete cover and ensure that proper embedment is achieved. The rebars in the cages are connected by welding or tying wires. For epoxy coated or galvanised rebars only the latter is possible.

Welding

Most grades of steel used in rebar are suitable for welding, which can be used to bind several pieces of rebar together. However, welding can reduce the fatigue life of the rebar, and as a result rebar cages are normally tied together with wire. Grade ASTM A706 is suitable for welding without damaging the properties of the steel. Besides fatigue concerns welding rebar has become less common in developed countries due to the high labor costs of certified welders. Steel for prestressed concrete may absolutely not be welded.

In the US, most rebar is not suitable for welding. ASTM A 616 & ASTM A 617 reinforcing are re-rolled rail steel & re-rolled rail axle steel with uncontrolled chemistry, phosphorous & carbon content. These are not suitable for welding. To weld rebar you must obtain a mill statement that the reinforcing is suitable for welding.

Rebar couplers

When welding or wire-tying rebar is impractical or uneconomical a mechanical connection or rebar coupler can be used to connect two or more bars together. These couplers are popular in precast concrete construction at the joints between members and to reduce rebar congestion in highly reinforced areas.

A full mechanical connection is achieved when the bars connected develop in tension or compression a minimum of 125% of the yield strength of the bar.

Safety

To prevent workers and / or pedestrians from accidentally impaling themselves, the protruding ends of steel rebar are often bent over or covered with special steel-reinforced plastic "plate" caps. "Mushroom" caps may provide protection from scratches and other minor injuries, but provide little to no protection from impalement.

Rebar designation

For clarity, reinforcement is usually tabulated in a Reinforcement Schedule on construction drawings. This eliminates ambiguity in the various notations used in different parts of the world. The following list provides examples of the different notations used in the architectural, engineering, and construction industry.

New Zealand

Designation

Explanation

HD-16-300, T&B, EW

High strength (500 MPa) 16 mm diameter rebars spaced at 300 mm centers (center-to-center distance) on both the top and bottom face and in each way as well (i.e., longitudinal and transverse).

3-D12

Three mild strength (300 MPa) 12 mm diameter rebars

R8 Stirrups @ 225 MAX

D grade (300 MPa) smooth bar stirrups, spaced at 225 mm centres. By default in New Zealand practice all stirrups are normally interpreted as being full, closed, loops. This is a detailing requirement for concrete ductility in seismic zones; If a single strand of stirrup with a hook at each end was required, this would typically be both specified and illustrated.

United States

Designation

Explanation

#4 @ 12 OC, T&B, EW

Number 4 rebars spaced 12 inches on center (center-to-center distance) on both the top and bottom faces and in each way as well, i.e. longitudinal and transverse.

(3) #4

Three number 4 rebars (usually used when the rebar perpendicular to the detail)

#3 ties @ 9 OC, (2) per set

Number 3 rebars used as stirrups, spaced at 9 inches on center. Each set consists of two ties, which is usually illustrated.

See also

Composite material

Concrete cover

Dowel

Formwork

Fusion bonded epoxy coating

for coated rebars

Reinforced concrete

Steel fixer

Carbon grid

References

^ Basic Rebar Information: http://www.usingrebar.com/

^ GFRP Bar Transverse Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Effects on Concrete Cover

^ American Concrete Institute: "Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-08) and Commentary," ISBN 978-0-87031-264-9

^ CRSI: 'Manual of Standard Practice', 8-2, 1998.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rebar

Stainless rebar information

OSHA Rebar Impalement Protection Measures

Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute

American Concrete Institute

Categories: Building materials | Concrete | SteelsHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from January 2008 | All articles needing additional references

Cookware and bakeware

China Suppliers


History

The history of cooking vessels before the development of pottery is minimal due to the limited archaeological evidence. It has been possible to extrapolate likely developments based on methods used by latter peoples. Among the first of the techniques believed to be used by stone age civilizations were improvements to basic roasting. In addition to exposing food to direct heat from either an open fire or hot embers it is possible to cover the food with clay or large leaves before roasting to preserve moisture in the cooked result. Examples of similar techniques are still in use in many modern cuisines.

Of greater difficulty was finding a method to boil water. For people without access to natural heated water sources, such as hot springs, heated stones could be placed in a water-filled vessel to raise its temperature (for example, a leaf-lined pit or the stomach from animals killed by hunters.). In many locations the shells of turtles or large mollusks provided a source for waterproof cooking vessels. Bamboo tubes sealed at the end with clay provided a usable container in Asia, while the inhabitants of the Tehuacan Valley began carving large stone bowls that were permanently set into a hearth as early as 7000 BC. spiral binding supplies

According to Frank Hamilton Cushing, native American cooking baskets used by the Zuni (Zui) developed from mesh casings woven to stabilize gourd water vessels. He reported witnessing cooking basket use by Havasupai in 1881. Roasting baskets covered with clay would be filled with wood coals and the product to be roasted. When the thus hardened clay separated from the basket, it would become a usable clay roasting pan in itself. This indicates a steady progression from use of woven gourd casings to waterproof cooking baskets to pottery. Other than in many other cultures, native Americans used and still use the heat source inside the cookware. Cooking baskets are filled with hot stones and roasting pans with wood coals. smart card reader writer

Native Americans, both in the East and in the West, would form a basket from large leaves to boil water, according to historian and novelist Louis L'Amour. As long as the flames did not reach above the level of water in the basket, the leaves would not burn through.[citation needed] inkjet refill machine

The development of pottery allowed for the creation of fireproof cooking vessels in a variety of shapes and sizes. Coating the earthenware with some type of plant gum, and later ceramic glazes, converted the porous container into a waterproof vessel. The earthenware cookware could then be suspended over a fire through use of a tripod or other apparatus, or even be placed directly into a low fire or coal bed as in the case of the pipkin. Ceramics (including stoneware and glass) conduct poorly, however, so ceramic pots must cook over relatively low heats and over long periods of time (most modern ceramic pots will crack if used on the stovetop, and are only intended for the oven). Even after metal pots have come into widespread use, earthenware pots are still preferred among the less well-off, globally, due to their low production cost.[citation needed]

The development of bronze and iron metalworking skills allowed for cookware made from metal to be manufactured, although adoption of the new cookware was slow due to the much higher cost. After the development of metal cookware there was little new development in cookware, with the standard Medieval kitchen utilizing a cauldron and a shallow earthenware pan for most cooking tasks, with a spit employed for roasting.

By the 17th century, it was common for a Western kitchen to contain a number of skillets, baking pans, a kettle and several pots, along with a variety of pot hooks and trivets. In the American colonies, these items would commonly be produced by a local blacksmith from iron while brass or copper vessels were common in Europe and Asia. Improvements in metallurgy during the 19th and 20th centuries allowed for pots and pans from metals such as steel, stainless steel and aluminium to be economically produced.

Cookware materials

Metal

Metal pots are made from a narrow range of metals because pots and pans need to conduct heat well, but also need to be chemically unreactive so that they do not alter the flavor of the food. Most materials that are conductive enough to heat evenly are too reactive to use in food preparation. In some cases (copper pots, for example), a pot may be made out of a more reactive metal, and then tinned or clad with another.

Aluminium

Aluminium is a lightweight metal with very good thermal conductivity. It does not rust, and is resistant to many forms of corrosion. Aluminium can, however, react with some acidic foods to change the taste of the food. Sauces containing egg yolks, or vegetables such as asparagus or artichokes may cause oxidation of non-anodized aluminium. Since 1965, circumstantial evidence has linked Alzheimer's disease to aluminium, but to date there is no proof that the element is involved in causing the disease.

Aluminum is commonly available in sheet, cast, or anodized forms. Sheet aluminum is spun or stamped into form. Due to the softness of the metal it is commonly alloyed with magnesium, copper, or bronze to increase its strength. Sheet aluminum is commonly used for baking sheets, pie plate, and cake or muffin pans. Stockpots, steamers, pasta pots, and even skillets are also available from sheet aluminum.

Anodized aluminum

Cast aluminum produces a thicker product than sheet aluminium, making it suitable for saucepots, Dutch ovens, and heavyweight baking pans such as bundt pans. Due to the microscopic pores caused by the casting process cast aluminium has a lower thermal conductivity than sheet aluminum.

Anodized aluminum has had the naturally occurring layer of aluminium oxide thickened by an electrolytic process to create a surface that is hard and non-reactive. It is used for saut pans, stockpots, roasters, and Dutch ovens.

Copper

Classically in Western cooking, the best pots were made out of a thick layer of copper for good thermal conductivity and a thin layer of tin to prevent the copper from reacting with acidic foods. Copper pans provide the best conductivity, and therefore the most even heating. They tend, however, to be heavy, expensive, and to require occasional retinning. They are now available with stainless steel rather than tin linings which last much longer. They are best for such high-heat, fast-cooking techniques as sauteing.

cast-iron

Cast Iron

Main article: Cast iron cookware

Cast iron cookware is slow to heat, but once at temperature provides even heating. Cast iron can also withstand very high temperatures, making cast iron pans ideal for searing. Being a reactive material, cast iron can have chemical reactions with high acid foods such as wine or tomatoes. In addition, some foods (such as spinach) cooked on bare cast iron will turn black.

Cast iron is a porous material that rusts easily. As a result, it typically requires seasoning before use. Seasoning creates a thin layer of fat and carbon over the iron that coats and protects the surface, and prevents sticking.

stainless steel

Stainless Steel

Stainless steel is an iron alloy containing a minimum of 11.5% chromium. Blends containing 18% chromium with either 8% nickel,called 18/8, or with 10% nickel, called 18/10, are commonly used for kitchen equipment. Stainless steel's virtues are a resistance to corrosion, it does not react with either alkaline or acidic foods, and it is not easily scratched or dented. Stainless steel's drawback for cooking use is that it is a relatively poor heat conductor. As a result, stainless steel cookware is generally made with a disk of copper or aluminium in or on the base to conduct the heat across the base.

carbon steel

Carbon Steel

Carbon steel cookware can be rolled or hammered into very thin sheets of material, while still maintaining high strength and heat resistance. This allows for rapid and high heating. Carbon steel does not conduct heat as well as other materials, but this may be an advantage for woks and paella pans, where one portion of the pan is intentionally kept at a different temperature than the rest. Like cast iron, carbon steel must be seasoned before use. Rub a fat (lard is recommended) on the cooking surface only and heat the cookware over the stovetop. The process can be repeated if needed. Over time the cooking surface will become dark and nonstick. Carbon steel is often used for woks and crepe pans.

Coated and composite cookware

Enameled cast iron

Enameled cast iron cooking vessels are made of cast iron covered with a porcelain surface. This creates a piece that has the heat distribution and retention properties of cast iron combined with a non-reactive, low-stick surface.

Enamel over steel

The enamel over steel technique creates a piece that has the heat distribution of carbon steel and a non-reactive, low-stick surface. Such pots are much lighter than most other pots of similar size, are cheaper to make than stainless steel pots, and do not have the rust and reactivity issues of cast iron or carbon steel. Enamel over steel is ideal for large stockpots, and for other large pans that will be used mostly for water-based cooking. Because of its light weight and easy cleanup, enamel over steel is also popular for cookware used while camping.

Clad aluminum or copper

Cladding is a technique for fabricating pans with a layer of heat conducting material, such as copper or aluminum, covered by a non-reactive material, such as stainless steel. Rather than just a heat-distributing disk on the base, the copper or aluminum extends over the entire pan.

Aluminum pans are typically clad on both their inside and the outside surfaces, providing both a stainless cooking surface and a stainless surface to contact the cooktop. Copper is typically clad on its interior surface only, leaving the more attractive copper exposed on the outside of the pan.

Some high-end cookware uses a dual-clad process, with a thin stainless layer on the cooking surface, a thick core of aluminum to provide structure and heat diffusion, and a thin layer of copper on the outside of the pot that provides additional diffusion and the "look" of a copper pot. This provides much of the functionality of tinned-copper pots for a fraction of the price.

Teflon coated frying pan

Non-stick

Modern metal cooking pans are frequently coated with a substance such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) coating in order to minimize the possibility of food sticking to the pan surface. This has advantages and disadvantages for flavor and ease of use. A small amount of sticking is needed to cause fond (called a glaze); adding liquid to lift the glaze from the pot is called deglazing. Additionally, nonstick pans should not be left on the stove at a high temperature. On the other hand, they are much easier to clean than other types of pots, and do not often result in burned food. When frying in pans without such a coating, it is necessary to use additional vegetable or animal fat to prevent sticking. The main difference in quality levels of the coatings are in the formulas of the liquid coating, the thickness of each layer and the number of layers of used.

Nonstick coatings tend to degrade over time, and require vigilant care and attention. In order to preserve the nonstick coating of a pan, it is important never to use metal implements in the pan while cooking, or harsh scouring pads or chemical abrasives when cleaning. Higher quality nonsticks use powdered ceramic or titanium mixed in with the nonstick to strengthen them and to make them more resistant to abrasion and deterioration. Some nonstick coatings containing hardening agents are also high enough in quality that they can be used in commercial kitchens. Some of which are high enough in quality, that they can be passed through the strict standards of the National Sanitation Foundation, which approve nonstick cookware for restaurant use.

There has been controversy surrounding the use of nonstick coatings: while decomposition does not occur at normal cooking temperatures, accidental overheating can produce decomposition products which are toxic to humans and fatal to birds.

Non-metallic cookware

Non-metallic cookware can be used in both conventional and microwave ovens. Non-metallic cookware typically can't be used on the stovetop, but some kinds of ceramic cookware, for example Corningware, are an exception.

Ceramics

Glazed ceramics, such as porcelain, provide a nonstick cooking surface. Some unglazed ceramics, such as terra cotta, have a porous surface that can hold water or other liquids during the cooking process, adding moisture in the form of steam to the food. Historically some glazes used on ceramic articles have contained high levels of lead, which can possess health risks.

Glass

Borosilicate glass, such as Pyrex, is safe at oven temperatures. The clear glass also allows for the food to be seen during the cooking process.

Glass-ceramic 

Glass ceramic is used to make products such as Corningware, which have many of the best properties of both glass and ceramic cookware. While Pyrex can shatter if taken between extremes of temperature too rapidly, glass-ceramics can be taken directly from deep freeze to the stove top. Their near-zero coefficient of thermal expansion makes them almost entirely immune to thermal shock.

Silicone

Silicone bakeware is light, flexible, and able to withstand sustained temperatures of 675F (360C). It melts around 930F (500C), depending upon the fillers used. Its flexibility is advantageous in removing baked goods from the pan. This rubbery material is not to be confused with the silicone resin used to make hard, shatterproof children's dishware, which is not suitable for baking.

Types of cookware and bakeware

The size and shape of a cooking vessel is typically determined by how it will be used. Cooking vessels are typically referred to as "pots" and "pans," but there is great variation in their actual shapes. Most cooking vessels are roughly cylindrical.

Cookware

A Pyrex chicken roaster

Rmertopf

Braising pans and roasting pans (also known as braisers and roasters) are large, wide and shallow, to provide space to cook a roast (chicken, beef, or pork). They typically have two loop or tab handles, and may have a cover. Roasters are usually made of heavy gauge metal so that they may be used safely on a cooktop following roasting in an oven. Unlike most other cooking vessels, roasters are usually oblong or oval. There is no sharp boundary between braisers and roasters - the same pan, with or without a cover, can be used for both functions. In Europe, a clay roaster (called sv:Lergryta/de:Rmertopf/sl:Rimski lonec) is still popular because it allows roasting without adding grease or liquids. This helps preserve flavor and nutrients. Having to soak the pot in water for 15 min. before use is a notable drawback.

Casserole pans (for making casseroles) resemble roasters and dutch ovens, and many recipes can be used interchangeably between them. Depending on their material, casseroles can be used in the oven or on the stovetop. Casseroles are commonly made of glazed ceramics or pyrex.

Dutch ovens are heavy, relatively deep pots with a heavy lid, designed to re-create oven conditions on the stovetop (or campfire). They can be used for stews, braised meats, soups, and a large variety of other dishes that benefit from low heat, slow cooking. Dutch ovens are typically made from cast iron, and are measured by volume.

Large and small skillets

Frying pans, frypans, skillets, or spiders (obs. Southern United States) provide a large flat heating surface and shallow sides, and are best for pan frying. Frypans with a gentle, rolling slope are sometimes called omelette pans. Grill pans are frypans that are ribbed, to let fat drain away from the food being cooked. Frypans and grill pans are generally measured by diameter (2030 cm).

Electric griddle with temperature control

Griddles are flat plates of metal used for frying, grilling, and making pan breads (such as pancakes, injera, tortillas, chapatis, and crepes). Traditional iron griddles are circular, with a semicircular hoop fixed to opposite edges of the plate and rising above it to form a central handle. Rectangular griddles that cover two stove burners are now also common, as are griddles that have a ribbed area that can be used like a grill pan. Some have multiple square metal grooves enabling the contents to have a defined pattern, similar to a waffle maker. Like frypans, round griddles are generally measured by diameter (2030 cm).

In Scotland, griddles are referred to as girdles. In some Spanish speaking countries, a similar pan is referred to as a comal. Crepe pans are similar to griddles, but are usually smaller, and made of a thinner metal.

Both griddles and frypans can be found in electric versions. These may be permanently attached to a heat source, similar to a hot plate.

A copper saucepot (stainless lined, with cast iron handles)

Saucepans (or just "pots") are vessels with vertical sides about the same height as their diameter, used for simmering or boiling. Saucepans generally have one long handle. Larger pots of the same shape generally have two handles close to the sides of the pot (so they can be lifted with both hands), and are called sauce-pots or soup pots (312 liters). Saucepans and saucepots are measured by volume (usually 18 L). While saucepots often resemble Dutch ovens in shape, they do not have the same heat capacity characteristics. Very small saucepans used for heating milk are referred to as Milk Pans, such saucepans usually have a lip for pouring the heated milk.

Ironically, the saucepan is not the ideal vessel to use for making sauces. It is more efficient to use saucepans with sloping sides, called Windsor pans, or saucepans with rounded sides, called sauciers. These provide quicker evaporation than straight sided pans, and make it easier to stir a sauce while reducing.

Saut pans, used for sauteing, have a large surface area and low sides to permit steam to escape and allow the cook to toss the food. The word "saut" comes from the French verb "sauter", meaning to jump. Saute pans often have straight vertical sides, but may also have flared or rounded sides.

Stockpots are large pots with sides at least as tall as their diameter. This allows stock to simmer for extended periods of time without reducing too much. Stockpots are typically measured in volume (6-36 L). Stock pots come in a large variety of sizes to meet any need from cooking for a family to preparing food for a banquet. A specific type of stockpot exists for lobsters, and an all-metal stockpot usually called a caldero is used in Hispanic cultures to make rice.

Woks are wide, roughly bowl-shaped vessels with one or two handles at or near the rim. This shape allows a small pool of cooking oil in the center of the wok to be heated to a high heat using relatively little fuel, while the outer areas of the wok are used to keep food warm after it has been fried in the oil. In the Western world, woks are typically used only for stir-frying, but they can actually be used for anything from steaming to deep frying.

Bakeware

Angel Food Cake Pan

Bakeware is designed for use in the oven (for baking), and encompasses a variety of different styles of baking pans as cake pans, pie pans, and loaf pans.

Cake pans include square pans, round pans, and speciality pans such as angel food cake pans and springform pans often used for baking cheesecake.

Sheet pans, cookie sheets, and jelly-roll pans are bakeware with large flat bottoms.

Pie pans are flat-bottomed flare-sided pans specifically designed for baking pies.

A springform pan with pizza

List of cookware and bakeware

Baking pan

Beanpot

Chip pan

Cookie sheet

Cooking pot

Crepe pan

Double boiler

Doufeu

Dutch oven

Frying pan (also called Skillet)

Griddle (also called Tawa in Hindi)

Karahi

Kettle

Pan

Pressure cooker

Ramekin

Roasting pan

Roasting rack

Saucepan

Saucier

Saut pan

Splayed Saut pan

Souffl dish

Springform pan

Stock pot

Tajine

Tube pan [types include angel food cake pan and Bundt cake (Kugelhopf) pan]

Wok

Footnotes

^ Tannahill pg 13

^ Tannahill pg 14-16

^ Online Reader - Project Gutenberg

^ Tannahill pg 16, 96

^ a b Beard pg 174-175

^ a b c d Williams pg 8-9

^ "Aluminum and Alzheimer's disease". Facts about dementia. Alzheimer's Society. http://www.alzheimers.org.uk/Facts_about_dementia/Risk_factors/info_aluminium.htm. Retrieved October 14 2005. 

^ Shcherbatykh I, Carpenter DO (May 2007). "The role of metals in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease". J. Alzheimers Dis. 11 (2): 191205. PMID 17522444. 

^ Rondeau V, Commenges D, Jacqmin-Gadda H, Dartigues JF (July 2000). "Relation between aluminum concentrations in drinking water and Alzheimer's disease: an 8-year follow-up study". Am. J. Epidemiol. 152 (1): 5966. doi:10.1093/aje/152.1.59. PMID 10901330. 

^ Rondeau, V.; Jacqmin-Gadda, H.; Commenges, D.; Helmer, C.; Dartigues, F. (Feb 2009). "Aluminum and silica in drinking water and the risk of Alzheimer's disease or cognitive decline: findings from 15-year follow-up of the PAQUID cohort". American journal of epidemiology 169 (4): 489496. doi:10.1093/aje/kwn348. ISSN 0002-9262. PMID 19064650.  edit

^ Williams pg 9-10

^ www.cooksguide.co.uk

^ Independent Studies Show No Detectable Levels of PFOA in Cookware Using Teflon

^ Burros, Marian (2006-06-07). "In Search of a Pan That Lets Cooks Forget About Teflon". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/07/dining/07pans.html. 

^ Bird Safety

^ Find FAQ's about SiliconeZone Bakeware , Kitchenware, Automatic Coffee Machines & More at KitchenKapers.com

References

James Beard, et al. (1975). The Cooks' Catalogue. Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-011563-7. 

Reay Tannahill (1988). Food in History. Crown Publishers. ISBN 0-517-57186-2. 

Chuck Williams (1986). The Williams-Sonoma Cookbook and Guide to Kitchenware. Random House. ISBN 0-394-54411-0. 

See also

Kitchenware

List of food preparation utensils

Pressure cooking

Pottery

Cauldron

Gastronorm sizes (standard sizes of container)

Kitchenware Brands

Categories: Kitchenware | Cookware and bakewareHidden categories: Pages containing cite templates with deprecated parameters | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from March 2007