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Description
Young leaves of Caribbean Trumpet Tree (Tabebuia aurea)
They are large shrubs and trees growing to 5 to 50 m (16 to 160 ft.) tall depending on the species; many species are dry-season deciduous but some are evergreen. The leaves are opposite pairs, complex or palmately compound with 37 leaflets. plank flooring
Tabebuia is a notable flowering tree. The flowers are 3 to 11 cm (1 to 4 in.) wide and are produced in dense clusters. They present a cupular calyx campanulate to tubular, truncate, bilabiate or 5-lobed. Corolla colors vary between species ranging from white, light pink, yellow, lavender, magenta, or red. The outside texture of the flower tube is either glabrous or pubescent. vinyl sheet pile
The fruit is a dehiscent pod, 10 to 50 cm (4 to 20 in.) long, containing numerousn some species wingedeeds. These pods often remain on the tree through dry season until the beginning of the rainy season. coir log
Uses and ecology
Araguaney (Tabebuia chrysantha) tree in a Caracas street
Species in this genus are important as timber trees. The wood is used for furniture, decking, and other outdoor uses. It is increasingly popular as a decking material due to its insect resistance and durability. By 2007, FSC-certified ip wood had become readily available on the market, although certificates are occasionally forged.
Tabebuia is widely used as ornamental tree in the tropics in landscaping gardens, public squares, and boulevards due to its impressive and colorful flowering. Many flowers appear on still leafless stems at the end of the dry season, making the floral display more conspicuous. They are useful as honey plants for bees, and are popular with certain hummingbirds. Naturalist Madhaviah Krishnan on the other hand once famously took offense at ip grown in India, where it is not native.
Lapacho tea
The bark of several species has medical properties. The bark is dried, shredded, and then boiled making a bitter or sour-tasting brownish-colored tea. Tea from the inner bark of Pink Ip (T. impetiginosa) is known as Lapacho or Taheebo. Its main active principles are lapachol, quercetin, and other flavonoids. It is also available in pill form. The herbal remedy is typically used during flu and cold season and for easing smoker's cough. It apparently works as expectorant, by promoting the lungs to cough up and free deeply embedded mucus and contaminants. However, lapachol is rather toxic and therefore a more topical use e.g. as antibiotic or pesticide may be advisable. Other species with significant folk medical use are T. alba and Yellow Lapacho (T. serratifolia).
Tabebuia heteropoda, T. incana, and other species are occasionally used as an additive to the entheogenic drink Ayahuasca.
Mycosphaerella tabebuiae, a plant pathogenic sac fungus, was first discovered on an ip tree.
Conservation concerns
Logging, often illegal, is destroying and fragmenting vast tracts of Amazonian primary forest.
The demand for ip wood has risen dramatically in recent years, especially in the United States. By the 1990s, numerous environmental organizations working on preservation of the Amazon Rainforest reported that about 80% of logging in the Brazilian Amazon was illegal. The Brazilian government has confirmed this figure, most notably in a leaked report from the Brazilian Intelligence Agency, in which it was confirmed that five times the amount of wood sanctioned to be cut from legal Amazon concessions was being exported and that numerous staff of the environment agency IBAMA were taking bribes.
In an October 2001 study for Greenpeace, five companies were reported to be logging illegally for ip and other hardwoods in the region around Santarm, Par: Cemex Commercial Madeiras Exportaao, Madeireira Santarm (Madesa), Industrial Madeireira Curuatinga, Maderieira Rancho da Cabocla, and Estncia Alecrim/Milton Jos Schnorr. The bulk of their illegal timber exports from that region went to the Netherlands and France.
Much of the ip imported into the United States is used for decking. Starting in the late 1960s, importing companies targeted large boardwalk projects to sell ip, beginning with New York City Department of Parks and Recreation ("Parks") which maintains the city's boardwalks, including along the beach of Coney Island. The city began using ip around that time and has since converted the entire boardwalkver 10 miles (16 km) longo ip. The ip lasted about 25 years, at which time (1994) Parks has been replacing it with new ip. Given that ip trees typically grow in densities of only one or two trees per acre, large areas of forest must be searched to fill orders for boardwalks and, to a lesser extent, homeowner decks.
In 2008-2009 Wildwood, New Jersey rebuilt a section of their boardwalk using ip, the town had pledged to use domestic black locust, but it was not available in time.
Nowadays, ip wood from cultivated trees supersedes timber extracted from the wild. As noted above, customers should check for legitimacy of certificates.
Notable species
Tabebuia aurea
Gold Tree (Tabebuia donnell-smithii)
Leaves of Pink Ip (Tabebuia impetiginosa) in detail
Trunk of Cuban Pink Trumpet Tree (Tabebuia pallida)
Flower of Pink Poui (Tabebuia rosea)
Tabebuia alba
Tabebuia anafensis
Tabebuia arimaoensis
Tabebuia aurea Caribbean Trumpet Tree
Tabebuia bilbergii
Tabebuia bibracteolata
Tabebuia cassinoides
Tabebuia chrysantha Araguaney, Yellow Ip, tajibo (Bolivia), ip-amarelo (Brazil), caaguate (N Colombia)
Tabebuia chrysotricha Golden Trumpet Tree
Tabebuia donnell-smithii Rose Gold Tree, "Prima Vera", Cortez blanco (El Salvador), San Juan (Honduras), palo blanco (Guatemala),duranga (Mexico)
A native of Mexico and Central Americas, considered one of the most colorful of all Central American trees. The leaves are deciduous. Masses of golden-yellow flowers cover the crown after the leaves are shed.
Tabebuia dubia
Tabebuia ecuadorensis
Tabebuia elongata
Tabebuia furfuracea
Tabebuia geminiflora Rizz. & Mattos
Tabebuia guayacan (Seem.) Hemsl.
Tabebuia haemantha
Tabebuia heptaphylla (Vell.) Toledo tajy
Tabebuia heterophylla roble prieto
Tabebuia heteropoda
Tabebuia hypoleuca
Tabebuia impetiginosa Pink Ip, Pink Lapacho, ip-cavat, ip-comum, ip-reto, ip-rosa, ip-roxo-damata, pau d'arco-roxo, peva, piva (Brazil), lapacho negro (Spanish); not "brazilwood"
Tabebuia incana
Tabebuia jackiana
Tabebuia lapacho lapacho amarillo
Tabebuia orinocensis A.H. Gentry[verification needed]
Tabebuia ochracea
Tabebuia oligolepis
Tabebuia pallida Cuban Pink Trumpet Tree
Tabebuia platyantha
Tabebuia polymorpha
Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC.[verification needed] (= T. pentaphylla (L.) Hemsley) Pink Poui, Pink Tecoma, apama, apamate, matilisguate
A popular street tree in tropical cities because of its multi-annular masses of light pink to purple flowers and modest size. The roots are not especially destructive for roads and sidewalks. It is the national tree of El Salvador and the state tree of Cojedes, Venezuela
Tabebuia roseo-alba White Ip, ip-branco (Brazil), lapacho blanco
Tabebuia serratifolia Yellow Lapacho, Yellow Poui, ip-roxo (Brazil)
Tabebuia shaferi
Tabebuia striata
Tabebuia subtilis Sprague & Sandwith
Tabebuia umbellata
Tabebuia vellosoi Toledo
Gallery of Tabebuia flowers
Araguaney
Tabebuia chrysantha
Golden Trumpet Tree
Tabebuia chrysotricha
Pink Ip
Tabebuia impetiginosa
White Ip
Tabebuia roseo-alba
Footnotes
^ a b c d Steyermark et al. (1997)
^ FSC Watch: SmartWood misled US local authority over FSC timber. Posted 2007-AUG-22. Retrieved 2008-JAN-27.
^ Baza Mendona & dos Anjos (2005)
^ Ott (1995)
^ SAE (1997)
^ Marquesini & Edwards (2001)
^ "Wildwood Opts for Ipe Wood Over Black Locust in Boardwalk Construction". Cape May County Herald. March 17, 2009. http://www.capemaycountyherald.com/article/38282-wildwood-opts-ipe-wood-over-black-locust-boardwalk-construction. Retrieved 2009-03-17.
References
Baza Mendona, Luciana & dos Anjos, Luiz (2005): Beija-flores (Aves, Trochilidae) e seus recursos florais em uma rea urbana do Sul do Brasil [Hummingbirds (Aves, Trochilidae) and their flowers in an urban area of southern Brazil]. [Portuguese with English abstract] Revista Brasileira de Zoologia 22(1): 5159. doi:10.1590/S0101-81752005000100007 PDF fulltext
Huxley, A. (ed.) (1992): New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan.
Keating, Tim (1998): Deep Impact: An Estimate of Tropical Rainforest Acres Impacted for a Board Foot of Imported Ip. Rainforest Relief Reports 6: 1-4. PDF fulltext
Lorenzi, H. (1992): rvores brasileiras: manual de identificao e cultivo de plantas arbreas nativas do Brasil.
Marquesini, M. & Edwards, G. (2001): The Santarem Five and Illegal Logging A Case Study. PDF fulltext
Ott, Jonathan (1995): Ayahuasca Additive Plants. In: Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangaean Entheogens.
Secretaria de Assuntos Estratgicos (SAE) (1997): Poltica Florestal: Explorao Madeireira na Amaznica. Confidential report.
Steyermark, Julian A.; Berry, Paul E.; Yatskievych, Kay & Holst, Bruce K. (eds.) (1997): 35. Tababuia. In: Flora of the Venezuelan Guayana (Vol. 3 Araliaceae-Cactaceae). ISBN 0-915279-46-0 HTML fulltext
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2007a): Germplasm Resources Information Network - Tabebuia. Retrieved 2007-NOV-14.
External links
Categories: Ayahuasca | Tabebuia | Trees of Argentina | Trees of Brazil | Trees of Mexico | Medicinal plantsHidden categories: All pages needing factual verification | Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2008
Sunday, April 18, 2010
Tabebuia
Kirsten Penny
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www.scottbanksfund.org.uk
^ http://www.tenpinleicester.co.uk/malta01.htm
^ http://www.scottbanksfund.org.uk dressage saddle
^ http://www.clubi.ie/irishbowlingassn/IrishOpenWinners.htm western saddles
^ http://www.abf-online.org/results/1stindo-res.htm equestrian rug
^ http://www.abf-online.org/results/29thai-res.htm
^ http://www.scottbanksfund.org.uk
^ http://www.clubi.ie/irishbowlingassn/IrishOpenWinners.htm
External links
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Experimental musical instrument
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Types
Experimental musical instruments are made from a wide variety of materials, using a range of different sound-production techniques. Some of the simplest instruments are percussion instruments made from scrap metal, like those created by German band Einstrzende Neubauten. Some experimental hydraulophones have been made using sewer pipes, plumbing fittings.
Since the late 1960s, many experimental musical instruments have incorporated electric or electronic components, such as Fifty Foot Hose 1967-era homemade synthesizers, Wolfgang Flr and Florian Schneider's playable electronic percussion pads, and Future Man's homemade drum machine made out of spare parts and his electronic Synthaxe Drumitar. heater waste oil
Some experimental musical instruments are created by luthiers, who are trained in the construction of string instruments. Some custom made string instruments are employed with three bridges, instead of the usual two (counting the nut as a bridge). By adding a third bridge, one can create a number of unusual sounds reminiscent of chimes, bells or harps A 'third bridge instrument' can be a "prepared guitar" modified with an object for instance, a screwdriver placed under the strings to act as a makeshift bridge, or it can be a custom made instrument. waste oil heater
One of the first guitarists who began building instruments with an extra bridge was Fred Frith. Guitarist and composer Glenn Branca has created similar instruments which he calls harmonic guitars or mallet guitars. Since the 1970s, German guitarist and luthier Hans Reichel has created guitars with third-bridge-like qualities. hydrogen generators
History
1900-1950s
Luigi Russolo with his assistant Ugo Piatti and their Intonarumori (noise machines)
Luigi Russolo (1885 - 1947) was an Italian Futurist painter and composer, and the author of the manifestoes The Art of Noises (1913) and Musica Futurista. Russolo invented and built instruments including intonarumori ("intoners" or "noise machines"), to create "noises" for performance. Unfortunately, none of his original intonarumori survived World War II.
Lon Theremin was a Russian inventor, most famous for his invention of the theremin around 1919-1920, one of the first electronic musical instruments. The Ondes Martenot is another early example of an electronic musical instrument.
The luthal is a type of prepared piano created by George Cloetens in the late 1890s and used by Maurice Ravel on his Tzigane composition for luthal and violin. The instrument can produce sounds like a guitar or a harmonica, with strange tick-tocking sounds. It had several tone-colour (not exclusively "pitch") registers that could be engaged by pulling stops above the keyboard. One of these registers had a cimbalom-like sound, which fitted well with the gypsy-esque idea of the composition.
Partch's chromelodion
Harry Partch (1901 1974) was an American composer and instrument builder. He was one of the first twentieth-century composers to work extensively and systematically with microtonal scales, writing much of his music for custom-made instruments he built himself, tuned in 11-limit just intonation. His adapted instruments include the adapted viola, three adapted guitars, and a 10-string fretless guitar. As well, he retuned the reeds of several reed organs and designed and built many instruments from raw materials, including the Diamond Marimba, Cloud Chamber Bowls, the Spoils of War, and a Gourd Tree.
Christian Wolff removes prepared objects
John Cage (1912 1992) was an American composer who pioneered the fields of chance music, electronic music and non-standard use of musical instruments. Cage's prepared piano pieces used a piano with its sound altered by placing various objects in the strings). Ivor Darreg (1917 - 1994) was a leading proponent of and composer of microtonal or "xenharmonic" music. He also created a series of experimental musical instruments. In the 1940s, Darreg built an amplified cello, amplified clavichord and an electric keyboard drum.
1950s-1980s
Kraftwerk is known for their self built synthesizers in the early 70s. Einstrzende Neubauten made several percussion instruments out of trash. Glenn Branca (born in 1948) is an avant-garde composer and guitarist who uses alternate tuned guitars, repetition, droning, and the harmonic series. Hans Reichel (Born 1949) is a German improvisational guitarist, luthier, and inventor. Reichel has constructed and built several variations of guitars and basses, most of them featuring multiple fretboards and unique positioning of pickups. The resulting sounds exceed the range of conventional tuning and add interesting effects, from odd overtones to metallic noises.
His Daxophone consists of a single wooden blade fixed in a block containing a contact microphone. Normally, it is played by bowing the free end, but it can also be struck or plucked, which propagates sound in the same way a ruler halfway off a table does. These vibrations then continue to the wooden-block bass, which in turn is amplified by the contact microphone(s) therein. A wide range of voice-like timbres can be produced, depending on the shape of the instrument, the type of wood, where it is bowed, and where along its length it is stopped with a separate block of wood (fretted on one side) called the "dax."
American composer Ellen Fullman (born in 1957) developed the long string instrument, which is tuned in just intonation and played by walking along the length the long strings and rubbing them with rosined hands and producing longitudinal vibrations.
A 1960s-era cracklebox instrument
In the 1960s, Michel Waisvisz and Geert Hamelberg developed the Kraakdoos (or Cracklebox), a custom made battery-powered noise-making electronic device. It is a small box with six metal contacts on top, which when pressed by fingers will generate a range of unusual sounds and tones. The human body becomes a part of the circuit and determines the range of sounds possible; different people will generate different sounds.
In the mid-1970s, Allan Gittler (1928-2003) made an experimental custom-made instrument called the Gittler guitar. The Gittler guitar has 6 strings, each string has its own pickup. The later versions have a plastic body. The steel frets give the instrument a sitar-like feel. Six individual pick ups can be routed to divided outputs.
Bradford Reed invented the pencilina, a custom-made string instrument in the 1980s. It is a double-neck 3rd bridge guitar that is similar in construction to two long, thin zithers connected by a stand. Wedged over and under the strings in each neck is an adjustable rod, a wooden drum stick for the guitar strings and a metal rod for the bass strings. In addition, there are four bells. The pencilina is played by striking its strings and bells with sticks. The strings may also be plucked or bowed.
Uakti (WAHK-chee) is a Brazilian instrumental musical group active in the 1980s known for using custom-made instruments built by the group. Marco Antnio constructed various instruments in his basement out of PVC pipe, wood, and metal.
Remo Saraceni made a number of Synthesizer type instruments with unusual interfaces, his most famous being The Walking piano made famous in the film big.
In the 1980s, the folgerphone was developed. It is a wind instrument (or aerophone), classifiable as a woodwind rather than brass instrument despite being made of metal, because it has a reed (cf. saxophone). It is made from an alto sax mouthpiece, with copper tubing and a coffee can. Although it uses sax parts, it is a cylindrical bore instrument, and thus part of the clarinet family.
1990s and 2000s
Two electrocardiophones and one electroencephalophone, which use brain waves to generate or modulate sounds.
The bazantar is a five-string double bass with 29 sympathetic and 4 drone strings and has a melodic range of five octaves invented by musician Mark Deutsch, who worked on the design between 1993 and 1997 (US patent 5883318 issued March 16, 1999). It is designed as a separate housing for sympathetic strings (to deal with the increased string tension) mountable on a double bass or cello, modified to hold drone strings.
Ken Butler makes odd shaped guitar like instruments made out of trash, rifles and other material. He also builds violins in eccentric shapes.
Iner Souster (born in 1971) is a builder of experimental musical instruments, visual artist, musician, fauxbot designer and film maker who lives in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Souster builds most of his instruments from trash, found, and salvaged materials. Some of his instruments are one string string instruments or thumb pianos. One of his more complicated instruments is the "Bowafridgeaphone" (bow a fridge a phone). Leila Bela is an Iranian-born American avant-garde musician and record producer from Austin, Texas. The Japanese multi-instrumentalist and experimental musical instrument builder Yuichi Onoue developed a two string hurdy gurdy like fretless violin, called the Kaisatsuko as well as a deeply scaloped electric guitar for microtonal playing techniques.
In the 2000s, Canadian luthier Linda Manzer created the Pikasso guitar, a 42-string guitar with three necks. It was popularized by jazz guitarist Pat Metheny, who used it on the song "Into the Dream" and on several albums. Its name is ostensibly derived from its likeness in appearance to the cubist works of Pablo Picasso.
Neptune is a noise music band from Boston that built their custom made guitars and basses out of scrap metal. The bass is built using a VCR casing and another one of their instruments has a jagged scythe at the end of it. They also play on custom made percussion instruments and electric lamellophones. Neptune began in 1994 as a student art project by sculptor/musician Jason Sanford. In 2006 Neptune signed with Table of the Elements, an experimental record label that also has performers such as Rhys Chatham, John Cale, Captain Beefheart on its roster.
Experimental luthier Yuri Landman built a variety of electric string resonance tailed bridge and 3rd bridge guitars like the Moodswinger, Moonlander and the Springtime for indie rock and noise rock acts like Sonic Youth, Liars, Blood Red Shoes as well as electric thumb pianos and electric drum guitars and spring drum instruments.
Bai's sea organ, which creates sound from the sea waves by using tubes built under the marble steps
In 2005, architect Nikola Bai built a Sea organ in Zadar, Croatia, which is an experimental musical instrument which plays music by way of sea waves and tubes located underneath a set of large marble steps. Concealed under these steps is a system of polyethylene tubes and a resonating cavity that turns the site into a huge musical instrument, played by the wind and the sea.The waves create somewhat random but harmonic sounds.
Builders not mentioned in the text
Baschet Brothers
Artists
Beck
Fifty Foot Hose
Einstrzende Neubauten
Fred Frith
Micachu
Neptune
Les Luthiers
The Presidents of the United States of America
Sleepytime Gorilla Museum
Thomas Truax
Charlie Hunter
Jeff Martin
Uakti
Futureman
Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids
Publications
Experimental Musical Instruments (EMI) was a periodical published by Bart Hopkins, a leader in 20th century experimental music design and construction. Though no longer in print, back issues are still available.
Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference (ICMC)
Proceedings of the New Interfaces for Musical Expression (NIME) conference
References
^ Hydraulophones, Amazing Woodwater Instruments Collection
^ Moodswinger - Experimental electric zither musical instrument, unique and unusual
^ http://www.calguitar.com/files/page_prepared.pdf
^ Prepared Guitar Techniques - Matthew Elgart/Peter Yates (Elgart/Yates Guitar Duo) ISBN 0-939297-88-4, California Guitar Archives, 1990
^ http://pencilina.com/insts.html review of Bart Hopkin abot the Pencilina
^ freesound :: view tag :: prepared-guitar
^ Yuichi Onoue's Kaisatsuko on hypercustom.com
External links
oddmusic, a website dedicated to unique, odd, ethnic, experimental and unusual musical instruments and resources.
EMI
NIME community page
www.siegelproductions.ca, a picture gallery of unusual instruments
DissoNoiSex, media art group devoted to the creation of new musical instruments.
Bowafridgeaphone made by Iner Souster
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Experimental music genres
Overviews
Experimental music Experimental rock
Related contemporary
classical music genres
Aleatoric music Avant-garde music Art music Electroacoustic music Musique concrte Noise music Tape music
Experimental popular music subgenres
Art rock Art punk Avant-garde metal Avant-punk IDM Industrial music Math rock No Wave Noise pop Noise rock RIO Glitch
Extended techniques
3rd bridge Circuit bending Experimental musical instrument Prepared guitar Prepared piano Scordatura Turntablism
Related visual art genres
Cymatics Fluxus Sound art Sound installation Sound sculpture Soundscape
Categories: Outsider music | Experimental musical instruments
Disk enclosure
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Benefits
Factory-assembled Buffalo external hard drive in a disk enclosure
Key benefits to using external disk enclosures include: symbol barcode scanner
Adding additional storage space and media types to small form factor and laptop computers, as well as sealed embedded systems such as digital video recorders and video game consoles. ibm netvista p4
Adding RAID capabilities to computers that lack RAID controllers or adequate space for additional drives. scanner 35mm slide
Adding more drives to any given server or workstation than their chassis can hold.
Transferring data between non-networked computers, jokingly known as sneakernet.
Adding an easily removable backup source with a separate power supply from the connected computer.
Using a network-attached storage-capable enclosure over a network to share data or provide a cheap off-site backup solution.
Preventing the heat from a disk drive from increasing the heat inside an operating computer case.
Simple and cheap approach to hot swapping.
Recovering the data from a damaged computer's hard drive, particularly when it doesn't share the same interface with the computer used to perform the recovery.
Lower the cost of removable storage by reusing hardware designed for internal use.
In some instances, provides a hardened chassis to prevent wear and tear.
Consumer enclosures
In the consumer market, commonly used configurations of drive enclosures utilize magnetic hard drives or optical disc drives inside of USB, FireWire, or Serial ATA enclosures. External 3.5" floppy drives are also fairly common, following a trend to not integrate floppy drives into compact and laptop computers, started by Apple Computer with their iMac. Pre-built external drives are available through all major manufacturers of hard drives, as well as several third-parties.
These may also be referred to as a caddy a sheath, typically plastic or metallic, within which a hard disk drive can be placed and connected with the same type of adapters as a conventional motherboard and power supply would use. The exterior of the caddy typically has two female sockets, used for data transfer and power.
Variants of caddy:
some larger caddies can support several devices at once and can feature either separate outputs to connect each device to a different computer, or a single output to connect both over the same data cable
certain caddes don't require a power supply, instead depending for power on the computer to which they are connected
some caddies have integrated fans with which to keep the drives within at a cool temperature
caddies for all major standards exist, supporting for example ATA, SCSI and S-ATA drives and USB, SCSI and FireWire outputs
Advantages:
relatively high transfer speed; typically faster than other common portable media such as CDs, DVDs and USB flash drives, slower than drives connected using solely ATA, SCSI and S-ATA connectors
storage; typically larger than CDs, DVDs and USB flash drives
price-to-storage ratio; typically better than CDs, DVDs and USB flash drives
Disadvantages:
power; most variants require a supply, unlike CDs, DVDs and USB flash drives
size; typically larger than CDs, DVDs and USB flash drives
Form factors
Multiple drives: RAID-enabled enclosures and iSCSI enclosures commonly hold multiple drives. High-end and server-oriented chassis are often built around 3.5" drives in hot-swappable drive caddies.
"5.25 inch" drive: (5.75 in x 8 in x 1.63 in = 146.1 mm x 203 mm x 41.4 mm)
Most desktop models of drives for optical 120-mm disks (DVD-ROM or CD-ROM drives, CD or DVD burners), are designed to be mounted into a so-called "5.25-inch slot", which obtained its nickname because this slot size was initially used by drives for 5.25-inch diameter floppy disks in the IBM PC AT. (The original "5.25-inch slot" in the IBM PC was with 3.25 in (82.6 mm) twice as high as the one commonly used today.)
"3.5 inch" drive: (4 in x 5.75 in x 1 in = 101.6 mm x 146.05 mm x 25.4 mm)
This smaller, 4-inch wide disk-drive form factor was introduced with the Apple Macintosh series in 1984, and later adopted throughout the industry beginning widely with the IBM PS/2 series in 1987, which included drives of this size for 90-mm ("3.5-inch") floppy disks. This form factor is today used by most desktop hard drives. They usually have 10 mounting holes with American 6-32 UNC 2B threads: three on each side and four on the bottom.
"2.5 inch" drive: (2.75 in x 3.945 in x 0.374 in = 69.85 mm x 100.2 mm x 9.5 mm)
This even smaller, 2.75-inch wide form factor is widely used today in notebook computers and similar small-footprint devices. One commonplace feature for these drives is radically lower power consumption than is found in larger drives. This enables enclosure vendors to power the devices directly from the host device's USB or other external bus, in most cases.
"1.8 inch" drive: Found in extremely compact devices, such as certain portable media players and smaller notebooks, these devices are extremely similar to their 2.5 inch cousins.
A range of other form factors has emerged for mobile devices. While laptop hard drives are today generally of the 9.5 mm high variant of the "2.5 inch" drive form factor, older laptops and notebooks had hard drives that varied in height, which can make it difficult to find a well-fitting chassis. Laptop optical drives require "slim" 5.25" enclosures, since they have approximately half the thickness of their desktop counterparts, and most models use a special 50-pin connector that differs from the 40-pin connectors used on desktop ATA drives.
While they are less common now than they once were, it is also possible to purchase a drive chassis and mount that will convert a 3.5" hard drive into a removable hard disk that can be plugged into and removed from a mounting bracket permanently installed in a desktop PC case. The mounting bracket carries the data bus and power connections over a proprietary connector, and converts back into the drive's native data bus format and power connections inside the drive's chassis.
Enterprise enclosures
In enterprise storage the term refers to a larger physical chassis. The term can be used both in reference to network-attached storage and components of a storage area network or be used to describe a chassis directly attached to one or more servers over an external bus. Like their conventional server brethren, these devices may include a backplane, temperature sensors, enclosure management devices, and redundant power supplies.
Connections
Native drive protocols
Main article: Direct Attached Storage
SCSI, SAS, Fibre Channel, and eSATA protocols can be used to directly connect the external hard drive to an internal host adapter, without the need for any intervening controller. External variants of these native drive protocols are extremely similar to the internal protocols, but are often expanded to carry power (such as eSATA and the SCSI Single Connector Attachment) and to use a more durable physical connector. A host adapter with external port may be necessary to connect a drive, if a computer lacks an available external port.
Direct attach serial protocols
USB or FireWire connections are typically used to attach consumer class external hard drives to a computer. Unlike SCSI, eSATA, or SAS these require circuitry to convert the hard disk's native signal to the appropriate protocol. Parallel ATA and internal Serial ATA hard disks are frequently connected to such chassis because nearly all computers on the market today have USB or FireWire ports, and these chassis are inexpensive and easy to find.
Network protocols
Main article: Network-attached storage
iSCSI, NFS, or Windows File Sharing are all commonly used protocols that are used to allow an external hard drive to use a network to send data to a computer system. This type of external hard drive is also known as Network-attached storage or NAS. Often, such drives are embedded computers running operating systems such as Linux or VxWorks that use their NFS daemons and SAMBA to provide a networked file system. A newer technology, Network-Attached Storage (NAS), has been applied to some disk enclosures, which allows network ability, direct connection (e.g. USB) and even RAID features.
References
^ "TiVo filling up? DVR expanders provide more room to record". Usatoday.Com. 2008-08-06. http://www.usatoday.com/tech/columnist/edwardbaig/2008-08-06-tivo-dvr-memory_N.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-29.
^ "Connect a USB hard drive to the PS3 to backup content Swapping the PS3 hard drive". Vgstrategies.about.com. 2009-06-16. http://vgstrategies.about.com/od/ps3cheatsandcodes/ss/PS3HDDUpgrade_2.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-29.
^ "Kingwin Big Drive RAID Enclosure Review". Virtual-Hideout. 2009-01-21. http://www.virtual-hideout.net/reviews/Kingwin_Big_Drive_Raid/index.shtml. Retrieved 2009-07-29.
^ 1 (2006-10-30). "The CalDigit S2VR Duo RAID Enclosure : The 130 MB/s RAID Box For Video Or Storage Review Tom's Hardware". Tomshardware.com. http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/caldigit-s2vr-duo-raid-enclosure,1350.html. Retrieved 2009-07-29.
^ a b Venezia, Paul (2007-06-07). "Sun Fire X4500 server crams 48 drives into 4U | Storage". InfoWorld. http://www.infoworld.com/article/07/06/07/23TCthumper_2.html. Retrieved 2009-07-29.
^ "Vizo Saturno One Touch Backup Enclosure Review :: Page 1 / 6". techPowerUp. http://www.techpowerup.com/reviews/Vizo/Saturno. Retrieved 2009-07-29.
^ O'Brien, Bill (2005-10-18). "Review: Three One-Touch Backup Drives Desktop Pipeline | Review: Three One-Touch Backup Drives". Informationweek.com. http://www.informationweek.com/news/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=172302082. Retrieved 2009-07-29.
^ Stevens, Tim (2009-01-13). "ioSafe announces Solo, the external, submersible, fire-proof HDD enclosure". Engadget.com. http://www.engadget.com/2009/01/13/iosafe-announces-solo-the-external-submersable-fire-proof-hdd/. Retrieved 2009-07-29.
See also
Computer case
USB Mass Storage Device
USB flash drive
Hard drive
Network-attached storage
Network Direct Attached Storage
Computer bus
SCSI Enclosure Services
SCSI Attached Fault-Tolerant Enclosure
SGPIO - Serial General Purpose Input/Output
Categories: Computer storage devices | Rotating disc computer storage media | Computer storage media | USB
Scanner Access Now Easy
China Suppliers
SANE kumho tires
Stable release pirelli tire
1.0.20 / May 3, 2009; 9 month(s) ago (2009-05-03) falken tire
Operating system
Microsoft Windows, Linux, UNIX, OS/2
License
GNU General Public License (GPL)
Website
sane-project.org
XSane
XSane on Ubuntu (Linux)
Stable release
0.996
Operating system
Microsoft Windows, Linux, UNIX, OS/2
License
GNU General Public License (GPL)
Website
www.xsane.org
Scanner Access Now Easy (SANE) is an application programming interface (API) that provides standardized access to any raster image scanner hardware (flatbed scanner, handheld scanner, video- and still-cameras, frame grabbers, etc.). The SANE API is public domain and its discussion and development is open to everybody. It is commonly used on Linux.
SANE differs from TWAIN in that it is cleanly separated into frontends (user programs) and backends (scanner drivers). Whereas a TWAIN driver handles the user interface as well as communications with the scanner hardware, a SANE driver only provides an interface with the hardware and describes a number of "options" which drive each scan. These options specify parameters such as the resolution of the scan, the scan area, colour model, etc. Each option has a name, and information about its type, units, and range or possible values (e.g enumerated list). By convention there are several "well known" options that frontends can supply using convenient GUI interaction e.g. the scan area options can be set by dragging a rectangular outline over a preview image. Other options can be presented using GUI elements appropriate to their type e.g. sliders, drop-down lists, etc.
One consequence of this separation is that network scanning is easily implemented with no special handling in either the frontends or backends. On a host with a scanner, the saned daemon runs and handles network requests. On client machines a "net" backend (driver) connects to the remote host to fetch the scanner options, and perform previews and scans. The saned daemon acts as a frontend locally, but simply passes requests and data between the network connections and the local scanner. Similarly, the "net" backend passes requests and data between the local frontend and the remote host.
Various types of unsupervised batch scanning are also possible with a minimum of support needed in the backend (driver). Many scanners support the attachment of document feeders which allow a large number of sheets of paper to be automatically scanned in succession. Using the SANE API, the frontend simply has to "play back" the same set of options for each scan, driving the document feed in between scans to load the next sheet of paper. The frontend only has to obtain the set of options from the user once.
XSane
XSane is a graphical frontend for SANE.
See also
Image and Scanner Interface Specification - Proprietary industry standard interface.
TWAIN - Software API for local drivers that are bundled with control GUI.
Windows Image Acquisition (WIA) - Proprietary API from Microsoft.
External links
Official SANE website
XSANE, a GTK+-based X frontend for SANE, WIN32 (Windows 9x/ME/NT/2000/XP) and OS/2 binary & source available
Image Acquisition Framework for Java
sane backends list
Java Tech: Acquire Images with TWAIN and SANE, Part 3 by Jeff Friesen 04/11/2005
v d e
Free and open source software
General
Copyleft Events and Awards Free software Free Software Definition Gratis versus Libre List of free and open source software packages Open source software
Operating system families
AROS BSD Darwin FreeDOS GNU Haiku Inferno Linux Mach MINIX OpenSolaris Symbian Plan 9 ReactOS
Development
Eclipse Free Pascal GCC Java libJIT LLVM Lua Open64 Perl PHP Python ROSE Ruby Tcl
History
GNU Haiku Linux Mozilla (Application Suite Firefox Thunderbird)
Organizations
Apache Software Foundation Blender Foundation Eclipse Foundation freedesktop.org Free Software Foundation (Europe India Latin America) GNOME Foundation GNU Project Google Code Linux Foundation Mozilla Foundation Open Source Initiative SourceForge Symbian Foundation Xiph.Org Foundation XMPP Standards Foundation X.Org Foundation
Licences
Apache Artistic BSD GNU GPL GNU LGPL ISC MIT MPL Ms-PL/RL zlib FSF approved licenses
Challenges
Binary blob Digital rights management Graphics hardware compatibility License proliferation Mozilla software rebranding Proprietary software SCO-Linux controversies Security Software patents Hardware restrictions Trusted Computing Viral license
Other topics
Alternative terms Community Linux distribution Forking Movement Microsoft Open Specification Promise Revolution OS Comparison with closed source
Categories: Device drivers | ImagingHidden categories: Articles lacking in-text citations from August 2008 | All articles lacking in-text citations
Sulfur mustard
China Suppliers
Chemistry
Synthesis
Sulfur mustard is the organic compound described with the formula (ClCH2CH2)2S. In the Depretz method, mustard gas is synthesized by treating sulfur dichloride with ethylene: neck lanyard
SCl2 + 2 C2H4 (ClCH2CH2)2S awareness bracelets
In the Meyer method, thiodiglycol is produced from chloroethanol and potassium sulfide and chlorinated with phosphorus trichloride: tyvek wristbands
3(HO-CH2CH2)2S + 2PCl3 3(Cl-CH2CH2)2S + 2P(OH)3
In the Meyer-Clarke method, concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) instead of PCl3 is used as the chlorinating agent:
(HO-CH2CH2)2S + 2HCl (Cl-CH2CH2)2S + 2H2O
Thionyl chloride and phosgene have also been used as chlorinating agents.
Although the compound is commonly known as "mustard gas", it is a viscous liquid at normal temperatures. The pure compound has a melting point of 14 C (57 F) and decomposes before boiling at 218 C (424.4 F).
Mechanism of toxicity
The compound readily eliminates a chloride ion by intramolecular nucleophilic substitution to form a cyclic sulfonium ion. This very reactive intermediate tends to bond to the guanine nucleotide in DNA strands, which is particularly detrimental to cellular health.[citation needed] This alkylation can lead to cellular death and cancer.[citation needed] Mustard gas is not very soluble in water but is very soluble in fat, contributing to its rapid absorption into the skin.[citation needed]
In the wider sense, compounds with the structural element BCH2CH2X, where X is any leaving group and B is a Lewis base are known as mustards. Such compounds can form cyclic "onium" ions (sulfonium, ammoniums, etc.) that are good alkylating agents. Examples are bis(2-chloroethyl)ether, the (2-haloethyl)amines (nitrogen mustards), and sulfur sesquimustard, which has two -chloroethyl thioether groups (ClH2C-CH2-S-) connected by an ethylene (-CH2CH2-) group. These compounds have a similar ability to alkylate DNA, but their physical properties, e.g. melting point, vary.
Physiological effects
Soldier with moderate mustard gas burns sustained during World War I showing characteristic bullae on neck, armpit and hands
Soldier with mustard gas burns to his back circa 1918
Soldier with extensive mustard gas burns to his back and arms circa 1918. These burns are severe enough to be life-threatening
Mustard gas has extremely powerful vesicant (skin irritating/blistering) effects on its victims. Additionally, it is strongly mutagenic and carcinogenic, due to its alkylating properties. It is also lipophilic. Because people exposed to mustard gas rarely suffer immediate symptoms, and mustard-contaminated areas may appear completely normal, victims can unknowingly receive high dosages. However, within 24 hours of exposure to mustard agent, victims experience intense itching and skin irritation which gradually turns into large blisters filled with yellow fluid wherever the mustard agent contacted the skin. These are chemical burns and they are very debilitating. If the victim's eyes were exposed then they become sore, starting with conjunctivitis, after which the eyelids swell, resulting in temporary blindness. According to the Medical Management of Chemical Casualties handbook, there have been experimental cases in humans where the patient has suffered miosis, or pinpointing of pupils, as a result of the cholinomimetic activity of mustard.[citation needed] At very high concentrations, if inhaled, mustard agent causes bleeding and blistering within the respiratory system, damaging mucous membranes and causing pulmonary edema. Depending on the level of contamination, mustard gas burns can vary between first and second degree burns, though they can also be every bit as severe, disfiguring and dangerous as third degree burns. Severe mustard gas burns (i.e. where more than 50% of the victim's skin has been burned) are often fatal, with death occurring after some days or even weeks have passed. Mild or moderate exposure to mustard agent is unlikely to kill, though victims invariably require lengthy periods of medical treatment and convalescence before recovery is complete. The mutagenic and carcinogenic effects of mustard agent mean that victims who recover from mustard gas burns have an increased risk of developing cancer in later life.
Skin damage can be reduced if povidone-iodine in a base of glycofurol is rapidly applied, but since mustard agent initially has no symptoms, exposure is usually not recognised until skin irritation beginst which point it is too late for countermeasures. The vesicant property of mustard gas can be neutralised by oxidation or chlorination; household bleach (sodium hypochlorite) or decontamination solution "DS2" (2% NaOH, 70% diethylenetriamine, 28% ethylene glycol monomethyl ether) can be used. After initial decontamination of the victim's wounds is complete, medical treatment is similar to that required by any conventional burn. The amount of pain and discomfort suffered by the victim is comparable, too. Mustard gas burns heal slowly and, as with other types of burn, there is a risk of sepsis caused by pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
A British nurse treating soldiers with mustard gas burns during World War I commented:
They cannot be bandaged or touched. We cover them with a tent of propped-up sheets. Gas burns must be agonizing because usually the other cases do not complain even with the worst wounds but gas cases are invariably beyond endurance and they cannot help crying out.
Formulations
In its history, various types and mixtures of sulfur mustard have been employed. These include:
H Also known as HS ("Hun Stuff") or Levinstein mustard. This is named after the inventor of the quick but dirty Levinstein Process for manufacture, reacting dry ethylene with sulfur monochloride under controlled conditions. Undistilled sulfur mustard contains 2030% impurities, for which reason it does not store as well as HD. Also, as it decomposes, it increases in vapor pressure, making the munition it is contained in likely to split, especially along a seam, thus releasing the agent to the atmosphere
HD Codenamed Pyro by the British, and Distilled Mustard by the US. Distilled sulfur mustard (bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide); approximately 96% pure. The term "mustard gas" usually refers to this variety of sulfur mustard. A much used path of synthesis was based upon the reaction of thiodiglycol with hydrochloric acid.
HT Codenamed Runcol by the British, and Mustard T- mixture by the US. A mixture of 60% sulfur mustard (HD) and 40% T (bis[2-(2-chloroethylthio)ethyl] ether), a related vesicant with lower freezing point, lower volatility and similar vesicant characteristics).
HL A blend of distilled mustard (HD) and Lewisite (L), originally intended for use in winter conditions due to its lower freezing point compared to the pure substances. The Lewisite component of HL was used as a form of antifreeze.
HQ A blend of distilled mustard (HD) and sesquimustard (Q) (Gates and Moore 1946).
The complete list of effective sulfur mustard agents commonly stock-piled is as follows:
1,2-Bis(2-chloroethylthio) ethane (aka Sesquimustard; Q)
1,3-Bis(2-chloroethylthio)-n-propane
1,4-Bis(2-chloroethylthio)-n-butane
1,5-Bis(2-chloroethylthio)-n-pentane
2-Chloroethylchloromethylsulfide
Bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide (HD)
Bis(2-chloroethylthio) methane
Bis(2-chloroethylthiomethyl) ether
Bis(2-chloroethylthioethyl) ether (O Mustard)
History
Development
Mustard gas was possibly developed as early as 1822 by M. Depretz (17981863). Depretz described the reaction of sulfur dichloride and ethylene but never made mention of any irritating properties of the reaction product which makes the claim doubtful. In 1854, another French chemist Alfred Riche (18291908) repeated the procedure but again did not describe any adverse physiological properties. In 1886, chemist Albert Niemann, known as a pioneer in cocaine chemistry, repeated the reaction but this time blister forming properties were recorded. In 1860, Frederick Guthrie synthesised and characterized the compound, and he also noted its irritating properties especially in tasting. In 1886, Viktor Meyer published a paper describing a synthesis which produced good yields. He reacted 2-chloroethanol with aqueous potassium sulfide and treated the resulting thiodiglycol with phosphorus trichloride. The purity of this compound was much higher and the adverse health effects on exposure consequently much more severe. These symptoms presented themselves in an assistant, and in order to rule out that the assistant was suffering from a mental illness (faking the symptoms) Meyer had the compound tested on rabbits, which consequently died. In 1913, English chemist Hans Thacher Clarke (of Eschweiler-Clarke fame) replaced phosphorus trichloride with hydrochloric acid in Meyer's recipe while working with Emil Fischer in Berlin. Clarke was hospitalized for 2 months for burns after a flask broke, and according to him Fischer's subsequent report on this incident to the German Chemical Society set Germany on the chemical weapons track. Germany in World War I relied on the Meyer-Clarke method with a 2-chloroethanol infrastructure already in place in the dye industry of that time.
Use
Mustard gas was first used effectively in World War I by the German army against British soldiers near Ypres in 1917 and later also against the French Second Army. The name Yperite comes from its usage by the German army near the city of Ypres. The Allies did not use the gas until November 1917 at Cambrai, after they captured a large stock of German mustard-filled shells. It took the British over a year to develop their own mustard gas weapon (their only option was the Despretziemannuthrie process), first using it in September 1918 during the breaking of the Hindenburg Line.
Mustard gas was dispersed as an aerosol in a mixture with other chemicals, giving it a yellow-brown colour and a distinctive odor. Mustard gas has also been dispersed in such munitions as aerial bombs, land mines, mortar rounds, artillery shells, and rockets. Mustard gas was lethal in only about 1% of cases; its effectiveness was as an incapacitating agent. Countermeasures against the gas were relatively ineffective, since a soldier wearing a gas mask was not protected against absorbing it through the skin.
Furthermore, mustard gas was a persistent agent which would remain in the environment for days and continue to cause sickness. If mustard gas contaminated a soldier's clothing and equipment, then other soldiers he came into contact with would also be poisoned. Towards the end of the war it was even used in high concentrations as an area-denial weapon, which often forced soldiers to abandon heavily contaminated positions.
Since then, mustard gas has also been reportedly used in several wars, often where those it is used against cannot retaliate:
United Kingdom against the Red Army in 1919
Spain against Rif insurgents in Morocco in 19211927
Italy in Libya in 1930
Soviet Union in Xinjiang, China against Japan in 1934 and 19361937
Italy against Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) from 1935 to 1940
Poland against Germany in 1939 during an isolated incident, British product
Germany against Poland and the Soviet Union in a few incidents during the Second World War
Japan against China in 19371945
Egypt against North Yemen in 19631967
Iraq against Iran in 19831988
Possibly Sudan against insurgents in the civil war, in 1995 and 1997
In 1943, during the Second World War, a U.S. stockpile exploded aboard a supply ship that was bombed in an air raid in the harbor of Bari, Italy, exposing and killing thousands of civilians and at least 83 Allied troops, and injuring nearly 600 more.[citation needed] The deaths and incident were partially classified for many years. It was noted by the U.S. Army's medical workers that the white cell counts of exposed soldiers were reduced, and mustard gas was investigated as a therapy for Hodgkin's lymphoma, a form of cancer. Study of the use of similar chemicals as agents for the treatment of cancers led to the discovery of mustine, and the birth of anticancer chemotherapy.
From 1943 to 1944, mustard gas experiments were performed on Australian Army volunteers in tropical Queensland by British and U.S. Army experimenters, resulting in severe injuries. One test site, Brook Island, was chosen to simulate Japanese-held Pacific islands.
The use of poison gas, including mustard gas, during warfare, a practice known as chemical warfare, was prohibited by the Geneva Protocol of 1925 and the subsequent Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993, which also prohibits the development, production and stockpiling of such weapons.
Disposal
Most of the sulfur mustard found in Germany after World War II was dumped into the Baltic Sea. Between 1966 and 2002, fishermen have found around 700 chemical weapons in the Bornholm region, most of which contained sulfur mustard. One of the more frequently dumped weapons was the "Sprhbchse 37" (SprB37, Spray Can 37, 1937 being the year of its fielding with the German Army). These weapons contain sulfur mustard mixed with a thickener, which renders it a tarlike viscosity. When the content of the SprB37 comes in contact with water, only the sulfur mustard in the outer layers of the lumps of viscous mustard hydrolyses, leaving amber-coloured residues which still contain most of the active sulfur mustard. On mechanically breaking these lumps, e.g. with a fishing net's drag board or with the hands, the enclosed sulfur mustard is still as active as it had been at the time the weapon was dumped. These lumps, when washed ashore, can be mistaken for amber, which can lead to severe health problems. Shells containing sulfur mustard and other toxic ammunition from World War I (as well as conventional explosives) can still occasionally be found in France and Belgium; they used to be disposed of by explosion at sea, but current environmental regulations prohibit this and so the French government is building an automated factory to dispose of the backlog of shells.
In 1972, the United States Congress banned the practice of disposing chemical weapons into the ocean. However, 64 million pounds of nerve and mustard agents had already been dumped into the ocean waters off the United States by the U.S. Army. According to a 1998 report created by William Brankowitz, a deputy project manager in the U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency, the Army created at least 26 chemical weapons dump sites in the ocean off at least 11 states on both the west and east coasts (Operation CHASE, Operation Geranium, etc.). Additionally because of poor records, they currently only know the rough whereabouts of half of them[citation needed].
A significant portion of the stockpile of mustard agent in the United States was stored at the Edgewood Area of Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland. Approximately 1,621 tons of mustard agent was stored in one-ton (900 kg) containers on the base under heavy guard. A disposal plant built on site neutralized the last of this stockpile in February 2005. This stockpile had priority because of the potential for quick reduction of risk to the community. The closest schools were fitted with overpressurization units to protect the students and staff in the event of a catastrophic explosion and fire at the site. These projects, as well as planning, equipment, and training assistance, were provided to the surrounding community as a part of the Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program (CSEPP), a joint US Army and Federal Emergency Management Agency program. Unexploded shells containing mustard agent and other chemical agents are still present in several test ranges in proximity to Edgewood area schools, but the smaller amounts (414 pounds; 26 kg) present considerably less risk. They are being systematically detected and excavated for disposal. There are several other sites in the United States where the remaining U.S. stockpiles of chemical agents are awaiting destruction in compliance with international chemical weapons treaties; the largest mustard agent stockpile, approximately 6,196 tons, is stored at the Deseret Chemical Depot in Utah. Destruction of this stockpile began in 2006. U.S. mustard agent and other chemical agent storage is managed by the US Army's Chemical Materials Agency. The Chemical Materials Agency (CMA) manages disposal operations at five of the remaining seven stockpile sites, located in Alabama, Arkansas, Indiana, Utah, and Oregon; disposal projects at the other two sites, located in Kentucky and Colorado, are managed by the U.S. Army Element, Assembled Chemical Weapons Alternatives (ACWA).
In 2008 a number of mustard gas bombs (empty) were recovered in an excavation at the Marrangaroo Army Base west of Sydney, Australia. In 2009, a mining survey near Chinchilla, Queensland uncovered 144 105mm Howitzer shells, some containing Mustard H, buried by the US Army during World War II.
Detection in biological fluids
Urinary concentrations of the thiodiglycol hydrolysis products of sulfur mustard have been used to confirm a diagnosis of chemical poisoning in hospitalized victims. The presence in urine of 1,1'-sulfonylbismethylthioethane (SBMTE), a conjugation product with glutathione, is considered a more specific marker, since this metabolite is not found in specimens from unexposed persons. Intact sulfur mustard was detected in postmortem fluids and tissues of a man who died one week post-exposure.
See also
Blister agent
Nitrogen mustard
Lewisite
Phosgene oxime
Chemical warfare
Chlorine gas
Poison gas in World War I
Mustard Gas Manufacture in UK
References
^ a b c d e FM 3-8 Chemical Reference handbook; US Army; 1967
^ Institute of Medicine (1993). "Chapter 5: Chemistry of Sulfur Mustard and Lewisite". Veterans at Risk: The Health Effects of Mustard Gas and Lewisite. The National Academies Press. http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2058&page=71.
^ http://www.vlib.us/wwi/resources/archives/images/i040823a/key.html
^ Cook, Tim (1999). No Place to Run: The Canadian Corps and Gas Warfare in the First World War. UBC Press. ISBN 0774807407.
^ Stewart, Charles D. (2006). Weapons of mass casualties and terrorism response handbook. Boston: Jones and Bartlett. p. 47. ISBN 0-7637-2425-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=7ZnXZfwWwgcC&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=levinstein+inventor+mustard&source=bl&ots=Nzr0rXjXKA&sig=wbDDQwiuq7mykCKhSJ_zCGK4VY8&hl=en&ei=dLWQSfOiING3twf_xeCdCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPA47,M1.
^ "Chemical Weapons Production and Storage". Federation of American Scientists. http://www.fas.org/programs/ssp/bio/chemweapons/production.html.
^ The Emergency Response Safety and Health Database: MUSTARD-LEWISITE MIXTURE (HL). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Accessed March 19, 2009.
^ Duchovic, Ronald J.; Vilensky, Joel A. (2007). "Mustard Gas: Its Pre-World War I History". J. Chem. Educ. 84: 944. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journal/Issues/2007/Jun/abs944.html. Mustard gas can have the problem of turning a patient's skin a different colour, including red, orange, pink, and in rare cases, blue.
^ a b c d e f g h Blister Agent: Sulfur Mustard (H, HD, HS), CBWinfo.com
^ a b c d Uses of CW since the First World War, Federation of American Scientists
^ a b Daniel Feakes (2003). "Global society and biological and chemical weapons". in Mary Kaldor, Helmut Anheier and Marlies Glasius. Global Civil Society Yearbook 2003. Oxford University Press. pp. 87117. ISBN 0199266557. http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Units/spru/hsp/Feakes%20chapter.pdf.
^ Lyon, Alistair (2008-07-09). "Iran's Chemical Ali survivors still bear scars". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSBLA84491620080709?feedType=RSS&feedName=topNews&rpc=22&sp=true. Retrieved 2008-11-17.
^ Goodwin, Bridget (1998). Keen as mustard: Britain's horrific chemical warfare experiments in Australia. University of Queensland Press, St. Lucia,. ISBN 9780702229411.
^ http://home.st.net.au/~dunn/brook%20island%20trial.htm
^ "CSEPP Background Information". US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 02-May-2006. http://www.fema.gov/government/grant/csepp1.shtm.
^ Ashworth L (2008-08-07). "Base's phantom war reveals its secrets". Fairfax Digital. http://lithgow.yourguide.com.au/news/local/news/general/bases-phantom-war-reveals-its-secrets/1237570.aspx.
^ a b Chemical Warfare in Australia
^ Cumming, Stuart (2009-11-11). "Weapons await UN inspection". Toowoomba Chronicle. http://www.thechronicle.com.au/story/2009/11/11/weapons-await-un-inspection/.
^ R. Baselt, Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 8th edition, Biomedical Publications, Foster City, CA, 2008, pp. 1463-1465.
External links
Textbook of Military Medicine - Intensive overview of mustard gas Includes many references to scientific literature
Detailed information on physical effects and suggested treatments
Iyriboz Y (2004). "A recent exposure to mustard gas in the United States: clinical findings of a cohort (n=247) 6 years after exposure". MedGenMed 6 (4): 4. PMID 15775831. Shows photographs taken in 1996 showing people with mustard gas burns.
An overview of the sulfur and nitrogen mustard agents (Caution: contains graphic images)
Questions and Answers for Mustard Gas
UMDNJ-Rutgers University CounterACT Research Center of Excellence A research center studying sulfur mustard, includes searchable reference library with many early references on sulfur mustard.
Nightmare in Bari
v d e
Chemical agents
Blood
Cyanogen chloride (CK) Hydrogen cyanide (AC)
Blister
Ethyldichloroarsine (ED) Methyldichloroarsine (MD) Phenyldichloroarsine (PD) Lewisite (L) Sulfur mustard gas (HD H HT HL HQ) Nitrogen mustard gas (HN1 HN2 HN3)
Nerve
G-agents
Tabun (GA) Sarin (GB) Soman (GD) Cyclosarin (GF) GV
V-agents
EA-3148 VE VG VM VR VX
Novichok agents
Pulmonary
Chlorine Chloropicrin (PS) Phosgene (CG) Diphosgene (DP)
Incapacitating
Agent 15 (BZ) EA-3167 Kolokol-1
Riot control
Pepper spray (OC) CS gas CN gas (mace) CR gas
v d e
United States chemical weapons program
Agents and chemicals
3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate (BZ) Chlorine Methylphosphonyl difluoride (DF) Phosgene QL Sarin (GB) Sulfur mustard (HD) VX
Weapons
Bigeye bomb M1 chemical mine M104 155mm Cartridge M110 155mm Cartridge M121/A1 155mm Cartridge M125 bomblet M134 bomblet M138 bomblet M139 bomblet M2 mortar M23 chemical mine M34 cluster bomb M360 105mm Cartridge M426 8-inch shell M43 BZ cluster bomb M44 generator cluster M55 rocket M60 105mm Cartridge M687 155mm Cartridge XM-736 8-inch projectile MC-1 bomb M47 bomb Weteye bomb
Operations and testing
Dugway sheep incident Edgewood Arsenal experiments MKULTRA Operation CHASE Operation Geranium Operation LAC Operation Red Hat Operation Steel Box Operation Ranch Hand Operation Top Hat Project 112 Project SHAD
Facilities
Anniston Army Depot Anniston Chemical Activity Blue Grass Army Depot Deseret Chemical Depot Edgewood Chemical Activity Hawthorne Army Depot Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System Newport Chemical Depot Pine Bluff Chemical Activity Pueblo Chemical Depot Tooele Chemical Agent Disposal Facility Umatilla Chemical Depot
Units and formations
1st Gas Regiment U.S. Army Chemical Corps Chemical mortar battalion
Equipment
Chemical Agent Identification Set M93 Fox MOPP People sniffer
Related topics
Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory Chlorine bombings in Iraq Herbicidal warfare List of topics Poison gas in World War I Tyler poison gas plot
Categories: Thioethers | Organochlorides | Blister agents | Organosulfur compounds | IARC Group 1 carcinogensHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2008 | Articles with unsourced statements from December 2008 | Articles with unsourced statements from February 2010 | Articles with unsourced statements from May 2009