Distributed Interactive Simulation

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History

The standard was developed over a series of "DIS Workshops" at the Interactive Networked Simulation for Training symposium, held by the University of Central Florida's Institute for Simulation and Training (IST). The standard itself is very closely patterned after the original SIMNET distributed interactive simulation protocol, developed by Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN) for Defense Advanced Research Project Agency in the early through late 1980s. BBN introduced the critical concept of dead reckoning to efficiently transmit the state of battle field entities, as well implementing DARPA's vision of simulations involving inexpensive general purpose computers (vs. 6DOF motion platforms and/or supercomputers), hundreds of online players (not just the 'onesies and twosies' which had been done before), wherein the realism and training value came not from high-fidelity simulation of vehicle dynamics but by the real time play with lots of intelligent allies and lots of intelligent opponents.

In the early 1990s, IST was contracted by the United States Defense Advanced Research Project Agency to undertake research in support of the US Army Simulator Network (SimNet) program. Funding and research interest for DIS standards development decreased following the proposal and promulgation of its successor, the High Level Architecture (simulation) (HLA, initially entitled DIS++), in 1996. HLA was produced by the merger of the DIS protocol with the Aggregate Level Simulation Protocol (ALSP) designed by MITRE. kenworth trucks

There was a NATO standardisation agreement (STANAG 4482, Standardised Information Technology Protocols for Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS), adopted in 1995) on DIS for modelling and simulation interoperability, but this was also abandoned in favour of HLA as early as 1998. The first draft HLA STANAG ran afoul of administrative procedures when it changed sponsors within NATO, which forced the process to start all over again at square one. In 2006 the HLA STANAG (4603) were finished and ratified by several NATO nations. truck wheel rim

The DIS family of standards toyota pickup rims

DIS is defined under IEEE Standard 1278:

IEEE 1278-1993 - Standard for Distributed Interactive Simulation - Application protocols

IEEE 1278.1-1995 - Standard for Distributed Interactive Simulation - Application protocols

IEEE 1278.1-1995 - Standard for Distributed Interactive Simulation - Application protocols - Errata (May 1998)

IEEE 1278.1A-1998 - Standard for Distributed Interactive Simulation - Application protocols

IEEE-1278.2-1995 - Standard for Distributed Interactive Simulation - Communication Services and Profiles

IEEE 1278.3-1996 - Recommended Practice for Distributed Interactive Simulation - Exercise Management and Feedback

IEEE 1278.4-1997 - Recommended Practice for Distributed Interactive - Verification Validation & Accreditation

IEEE 1278.5-XXXX - Fidelity Description Requirements (never published)

In addition to the IEEE standards, the Simulation Interoperability Standards Organization (SISO) maintains and publishes an enumerations and bit encoded fields document yearly. This document is referenced by the IEEE standards and used by DIS and HLA federations. Both a PDF and XML version are available.

Current status

SISO, a sponsor committee of the IEEE, promulgates improvements in DIS. Contrary to some people's opinions, DIS is not dead, but is still in use by many groups.

Major changes are already in the draft update to IEEE 1278.1 to make DIS more extensible and efficient and to support the simulation of new real world capabilities. Click on the DIS Product Development Group link under External Links for more information.

Download a free copy of the DIS Find-It-Fast Guide that has links to All Things DIS!

Find out about the availability of open source DIS XML and DIS X3D.

Application protocol

Simulation state information is encoded in formatted messages, known as protocol data units (PDUs) and exchanged between hosts using existing transport layer protocols, though normally broadcast User Datagram Protocol is used. There are several versions of the DIS application protocol, not only including the formal standards, but also drafts submitted during the standards balloting process.

Version 1 - Standard for Distributed Interactive Simulation - Application Protocols, Version 1.0 Draft (1992)

Version 2 - IEEE 1278-1993

Version 3 - Standard for Distributed Interactive Simulation - Application Protocols, Version 2.0 Third Draft (May 1993)

Version 4 - Standard for Distributed Interactive Simulation - Application Protocols, Version 2.0 Fourth Draft (March 1994)

Version 5 - IEEE 1278.1-1995

Version 6 - IEEE 1278.1A-1998 (amendment to IEEE 1278.1-1995)

Version 7 - IEEE 1278.1-200X (in preparation - scheduled for completion and IEEE balloting in Winter/Spring 2009. See External Link - DIS Product Development Group.)

Protocol data units

The current version of the DIS application protocol defines 67 different PDU types, arranged into 12 families. Frequently used PDU types are listed below for each family.

Entity information/interaction family - Entity State, Collision, Collision-Elastic, Entity State Update

Warfare family - Fire, Detonation

Logistics family - Service Request, Resupply Offer, Resupply Received, Resupply Cancel, Repair Complete, Repair Response

Simulation management family - Start/Resume, Stop/Freeze, Acknowledge

Distributed emission regeneration family - Designator, Electromagnetic Emission, IFF/ATC/NAVAIDS, Underwater Acoustic, Supplemental Emission/Entity State (SEES)

Radio communications family - Transmitter, Signal, Receiver, Intercom Signal, Intercom Control

Entity management family

Minefield family

Synthetic environment family

Simulation management with reliability family

Live entity family

Non-real time family

See also

Computer simulation

Simulation Interoperability Standards Organization

External links

SISO DIS Product Support Group

SISO DIS Product Development Group

C++, C#, Objective-C, and Java Open source implementations of DIS

KDIS: C++ Open source (LGPL) implementation of DIS

Categories: IEEE standards | NATO Standardisation Agreements | Distributed computing architecture | Application layer protocols | Modeling and simulation

Kashrut

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Principles of kashrut

The laws of kashrut derive from various passages in the Torah, and are numerous and complex, but the key principles are as follows:

Only meat from particular species is permissible: casement air conditioner

Mammals that both chew their cud (ruminate) and have cloven hooves can be kosher. Animals with one characteristic but not the other (the camel, the hyrax and the hare because they have no cloven hooves, and the pig because it does not ruminate) are specifically excluded (Leviticus 11:3-8). evaporative cooler

In 2008, a rabbinical ruling determined that giraffes and their milk are eligible to be considered kosher.The giraffe has both split hooves and chews its cud, characteristics of animals considered kosher. Findings from 2008 show that giraffe milk curdles, meeting kosher standards. Although kosher, the giraffe is not slaughtered today because the process would be very costly, they are hard animals to restrain, and to prevent the species from becoming endangered. portable evaporative air cooler

Non-kosher birds are listed outright (Deuteronomy 14:12-18) but the exact references are disputed and some references refer to families of birds (24 are mentioned). The Mishnah refers to four signs provided by the sages:

1. A dores (predatory bird) is not kosher

Additionally, kosher birds possess the following three physical characteristics:

2. An extra toe

3. A zefek (crop)

4. A korkoban (gizzard) with a peelable lumen

However, individuals are barred from merely applying these regulations alone; an established tradition (masorah) is necessary to allow birds to be consumed, even if it can be substantiated that they meet all four criteria. The only exception to this is turkey. There was a time when certain authorities considered the signs enough, so Jews started eating this bird without a masorah because it possesses all the signs (simanim in Hebrew) and there is a place for this in Jewish law, but to be stringent and pious one doesn't go with leniencies.[citation needed]

Fish must have fins and scales to be kosher (Leviticus 11:9-12). Shellfish and other non-fish water fauna are not kosher.

Insects are not kosher, except for certain species of kosher locust (unrecognized in almost all communities).

That an animal is untamed does not preclude it from being kashrut, but a wild animal must be trapped and ritually slaughtered (shechted) rather than killed some other way to be kosher.

Generally any animal that eats other animals, whether they kill their food or eat carrion (Leviticus 11:13-19), is not kosher, as well as any animal that was partially eaten by other animals (Leviticus 22:8).

Meat and milk (or derivatives) cannot be mixed (Deuteronomy 14:21) in the sense that meat and dairy products are not served at the same meal, served or cooked in the same utensils, or stored together. Observant Jews have separate sets of dishes, and sometimes different kitchens, for meat and milk, and wait anywhere between one and six hours after eating meat before consuming milk products.

Examples of cloven hooves in goats (upper left), pigs (lower left) and cows (lower right). But horses lacks cloven hooves (upper right)

Mammals and fowl must be slaughtered in a specific fashion: slaughter is done by a trained individual (a shochet) using a special method of slaughter, shechita (Deuteronomy 12:21). Among other features, shechita slaughter severs the jugular vein, carotid artery, esophagus and trachea in a single continuous cutting movement with an unserrated, sharp knife, avoiding unnecessary pain to the animal. Failure of any of these criteria renders the meat of the animal unsuitable. The body must be checked after slaughter to confirm that the animal had no medical condition or defect that would have caused it to die of its own accord within a year, which would make the meat unsuitable.

As much blood as possible must be removed (Leviticus 17:10) through the kashering process; this is usually done through soaking and salting the meat, but organs rich in blood (the liver) are grilled over an open flame.

Utensils used for non-kosher foods become non-kosher, and make even otherwise kosher food prepared with them non-kosher. Some such utensils, depending on the material they are made from, can be made suitable for preparing kosher food again by immersion in boiling water or by the application of a blowtorch.

Food prepared by Jews in a manner that violates the Shabbat (Sabbath) may not be eaten until the Shabbat is over.

Passover has special dietary rules, the most important of which is the prohibition on eating leavened bread or derivatives of this (chametz, Exodus 12:15). Utensils used in preparing and serving chametz are also forbidden on Passover unless they have been cleansed (kashering). Observant Jews often have separate sets of meat and dairy utensils for Passover use only.

Certain foods must have been prepared in whole or in part by Jews, including:

Wine

Certain cooked foods (bishul akum)

Cheese (gvinat akum) and according to some also butter (chem'at akum)

According to many: certain dairy products (Hebrew: chalav Yisrael "milk of Israel")

According to some: bread (under certain circumstances) (Pat Yisrael)

A cocoon found among barleycorns in a commercially available bag of barley. Food such as seeds, nuts and vegetables need to be checked so as to avoid eating insects.

Biblical rules control the use of agriculture produce: for produce grown in the Land of Israel a modified version of the Biblical tithes must be applied, including Terumat HaMaaser, Maaser Rishon, Maaser Sheni, and Maaser Ani (untithed produce is called tevel); the fruit of the first three years of a tree growth or replanting are forbidden for eating or any other use as orlah; produce grown in the Land of Israel on the seventh year is Shviit, and unless managed carefully is forbidden as a violation of the Shmita (Sabbatical Year).

The following rules of kashrut are not universally observed:

The rule against eating chadash (new grain) before the 16th of the month Nisan; many hold that this rule does not apply outside the Land of Israel

In addition, some groups follow various eating restrictions on Passover which go beyond the rules of kashrut, such as the eating of gebrochts or garlic.

Reason for kashrut laws

There continues to be a debate among various theories about the purposes and meaning of the laws regarding kashrut.

Traditional Jewish philosophy divided the 613 mitzvot into just two groups - laws which have a rational explanation (mishpatim) and those which do not (chukim).

Some Jewish scholars have held that these dietary laws should simply be categorized with a group of laws that are considered irrational in that there is no particular explanation for their existence. The reason for this is that it is believed that there are some of God's regulations for mankind that the human mind is not necessarily capable of understanding. Related to this is the idea that the dietary laws were given as a demonstration of God's authority and that man should obey without asking for a reason.

This last view has been rejected by most classical and modern Jewish authorities[citation needed]. For example Maimonides holds that a Jew is permitted to seek out reasons for the laws of the Torah.

As moral symbolism

During the first few centuries of the Common Era some philosophers held that the laws of kashrut were symbolic in character. In this view, kosher animals represent virtues, while non-kosher animals represent vices. The first indication of this view can be found in the 1st century BCE Letter of Aristeas, which argues that the laws "have been given ... to awake pious thoughts and to form the character". It later reappears in the prolix allegories of Philo of Alexandria, and in the writings of some of the early Christian Church Fathers. The majority of Jewish and Christian theologians, and biblical scholars, reject the symbolism hypothesis, but it features in the work of the 19th century Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch.

The Torah prohibits 'seething the kid (goat, sheep, calf) in its mother's milk', a practice cruel only in concept, which would not be understood as cruelty by either the kid or its mother and would not cause them additional suffering; but which might still potentially inflame a human's taste for ultimate power over those creatures who are weaker. Thus, kashrut prohibits the practice itself, even if the resulting mixture is to be discarded.

Health reasons

There have been various attempts to provide empirical support for the view that the Israelite food laws have health benefits or purpose, one of the earliest being from Maimonides in his Guide for the Perplexed. Processing rules can have an impact; for instance, glatt, the requirement that lungs be checked to be free of adhesions, would prevent consumption of animals who had been infected with tuberculosis. Similarly, the ban on slaughtering of an unconscious animal would eliminate many sick and possibly infectious animals from being consumed. It is plausible for the toxicity of animals to be affected by the foods they eat.

However, these risks can usually be reduced by ensuring the meat is properly cooked; similarly the diseases and toxins which occur in the food of animals are also dangerous when those foods are eaten directly (e.g. eating the vegetables, seeds, and fruit that cows eat, rather than the cows themselves), something which the food laws don't specifically forbid. The claim that the laws have a hygiene/health purpose has therefore fallen out of favour among Biblical scholars, particularly since there are dangers that the laws do not cover; for example, there are no prohibitions on the types of fruit and vegetables which can be eaten, even though there are many poisonous herbs, seeds, berries, and fruits.

Nevertheless, some continue to pursue the idea that the food laws introduce health benefits. In 1953, Dr. David I. Macht, an Orthodox Jew who is one of the primary proponents of the theory of biblical scientific foresight, conducted toxicity experiments on many different kinds of animals and fish. His experiment involved lupin seedlings being supplied with extracts from the meat of various animals; Macht reported that in 100% of cases, extracts from ritually unclean meat inhibited the seedling's growth more than that from ritually clean meats. In addition, Dr. Macht's research indicated that mixtures of meat and milk, and meat that wasn't ritually slaughtered, appeared to be more toxic to lupin seeds than meat from other sources. Macht's claim that his methodology, known as phytopharmacology, could have any conclusions in relation to human consumption, has never been scientifically corroborated by independent researchers, and is regarded by the scientific community as not being mainstream science; at the request of a Seventh-day Adventist Church publication, Macht's study was explicitly challenged by a series of senior biologists

Jewish mysticism

Hasidism believes that everyday life is imbued with channels connecting with Divinity, the activation of which it sees as helping the Divine Presence to be drawn into the physical world; Hasidism argues that the food laws are related to the way in which such channels, termed sparks of holiness, interact with various animals.

According to the teachings of Hasidism, sparks of Holiness are released whenever a Jew manipulates any object for a holy reason (which includes eating, if it is done with the intention to provide strength to follow the laws of the Torah); however, in the view of Hasidism, not all animal products are capable of releasing their sparks of holiness. The Hasidic argument is that God designed the animals in a way that gives clear signs about whether sparks can be released from them or not, the signs being expressed in the biblical categorization into ritually clean and ritually unclean; the signs themselves are not believed to be the cause of the animal being kosher, and hence if a cow happens to born with a fully fused hoof, it does not become non-kosher on this basis alone.

Separation from other cultures

According to Christian theologian Gordon J. Wenham, the purpose of kashrut was to help Jews maintain a distinct and separate existence from other peoples; he alleges that the effect of the laws of kashrut was to prevent socialization and intermarriage with non-Jews, preventing Jewish identity from being diluted. Wenham argued that since the impact of the food laws was a public affair, this would have enhanced Jewish attachment to them as a reminder of the special status of Jews.

Pig taboo

Anthropologist Marvin Harris proposed that the Jewish prohibition against pork results from mundane socio-economic concerns. Although wild pigs forage in the forests, there are no such environments for them in the region that was Canaan, and consequently they must instead be fed grain; however, the grain which pigs eat is also that eaten by people, and so the pigs would compete with humans for survival during years of bad harvest. As such, raising pigs could have been seen as wasteful and decadent; Harris cites examples of similar ecological reasons for religious practices, including prohibitions against pork, in other religions of the world.

Self-discipline

According to other theories, the practice of kashrut serves as a daily exercise in self-discipline and self-control, strengthening the practitioner's ability to choose other difficult paths. The ability to rationally curb one's most basic appetites can be seen as the prerequisite to living in a civilized society. Also, Jews consider the aspects of kosher slaughter which emphasize and incorporate the need to avoid unnecessary suffering of the animal a reminder to the believer that having the power of life and death or to cause suffering, even to a farm animal born and bred to be eaten, is a serious responsibility rather than a pleasure to be sought after; and that to actually indulge in pleasure in the power to cause suffering, even in so common a practice as hunting, is to damage our own moral sensibilities.[citation needed]

The prohibition against eating the fruits of a tree for the first three years also represents a capacity for self-discipline and self-denial, as well as a lengthy period of appreciation for the bounty of God, prior to losing oneself in its enjoyment. Similarly, the requirement to tithe one's harvest, aside from the social justice aspect, serves as a reminder that this material wealth is not purely the result of one's own efforts, but represents a gift from God; and as such, to share the gift with one's fellows does not represent a real loss to anyone, even oneself.[citation needed]

Non-Orthodox outlook

Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism hold that Jews should follow the laws of kashrut as a matter of religious obligation. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism hold that these laws are no longer binding. Historically, Reform Judaism actively opposed kashrut as an archaism inhibiting the integration of Jews in the general society. More recently, some parts of the Reform community have begun to explore the option of a more traditional approach.[citation needed] This tradition-leaning faction agrees with mainstream Reform that the rules concerning kashrut are not obligatory, but believe that Jews should consider keeping kosher because it is a valuable way for people to bring holiness into their lives. Thus Jews are encouraged to consider adopting some or all of the rules of kashrut on a voluntary basis. The Reconstructionist movement advocates that its members accept some of the rules of kashrut.

Many Jews observe kashrut partially, by abstaining from pork or shellfish, or not drinking milk with a meat dish. Some keep kosher at home but have no problem eating in a non-kosher restaurant.

In the summer of 2004, a controversy arose in New York City over the presence of copepods (tiny crustaceans) in the city water supply. While some authorities hold that these creatures are microscopic and therefore negligible, others note that they are almost the size of a small insect, such as a gnat, and far larger than bacteria or other single-celled creatures; in fact can be detected by the naked eye. The Central Rabbinical Council has ruled that water should be filtered.

Linguistic borrowing

By extension, the broader sense of the word kosher has the meanings legitimate, acceptable, permissible, genuine, or authentic. For example, the Babylonian Talmud uses kosher in the sense of virtuous, when referring to the Drayavahush I (known in English, via Latin, as Darius) as a "kosher king"; Darius, a Persian King, assisted in building the Second Temple.

The word kosher is also part of some common product names. Sometimes it is used as an abbreviation of koshering, meaning the process for making something kosher; for example, kosher salt is a form of salt which has irregularly-shaped crystals, making it particularly suitable for preparing meat according to the rules of kashrut, because the increased surface area of the crystals absorbs blood more effectively. At other times it is used as a synonym for Jewish tradition; for example, a kosher dill pickle is simply a pickle made in the traditional manner of Jewish New York City pickle makers, using a generous addition of garlic to the brine, and is not necessarily compliant with the traditional Jewish food laws.

Ethical eating

The translation of the root (K-Sh-R, Kaf-Shin-Resh) when used in this context is generally accepted to be about the "fitness" or "kosherness" of the food for consumption. There are two major strains of thought on alternative ways that "kashrut" should be practiced in order to more broadly categorize food as fit for consumption. In addition to these two major trains of thought, some, especially in the United Kingdom, have taken the fitness of the food they eat as directly dependent on how ethically it was produced, specifically in relation to its impact on the world and its people. For instance, only Fairtrade teas and coffees are served in some synagogues and community centers and eggs used are organic or free range.

Vegetarianism

Many vegetarian restaurants and producers of vegetarian foods acquire a hechsher, certifying that a Rabbinical organization has approved their products as being kosher. The hechsher will usually certify that certain vegetables have been checked for insect infestation and steps have been taken to ensure that cooked food meets the requirements of bishul Yisrael.

Vegetables such as lettuce, cabbage, broccoli and cauliflower must be checked for insect infestation. The proper procedure for inspecting and cleaning will vary by species, growing conditions, and the views of any particular rabbi.

Many coffee creamers currently sold in the United States are labeled as "non-dairy", yet also have a "D" alongside their hechsher, which indicates a dairy status. This is because of an ingredient (usually sodium caseinate), which is derived from milk. The rabbis categorize it as dairy that cannot be mixed with meat, but the US government considers it to lack the nutritional value of milk. Such products are also unsuitable for vegans and other strict dairy abstainers.

On the other hand, kashrut does recognize some processes as capable of converting a meat or dairy product into a pareve one. For example, rennet is sometimes made from stomach linings, yet is acceptable for making kosher cheese, but such cheeses might not be acceptable to some vegetarians, who would eat only cheese made from a vegetarian rennet. The same applies to kosher gelatin, which is an animal product, despite its pareve status. These exceptions do not hold true for Orthodox Jews, who require special supervision for cheese and will only accept gelatin in cases such as medical gel capsules which are for health reasons and no alternative is possible.

Kashrut has procedures by which equipment can be cleaned of its previous non-kosher use, but that might be inadequate for those with allergies, vegetarians, or adherents to other religious statutes. For example, dairy manufacturing equipment can be cleaned well enough that the rabbis will grant pareve status to products manufactured afterward. Nevertheless, someone with a strong allergic sensitivity to dairy products might still react to the dairy residue, and that is why some products will have a "milk" warning on a product, which is legitimately pareve.

Kashrut and animal welfare

Kashrut prohibits slaughter of an unconscious animal. Kosher slaughter, shechita, involves cutting the trachea and esophagus with a sharp, flawless knife. At the same time, the carotid arteries, which are the primary supplier of blood to the brain, are severed. The profound loss of blood and the massive drop in blood pressure render the animal insensate almost immediately. Studies done by Dr. H. H. Dukes at the Cornell University School of Veterinary Medicine indicate that the animal is unconscious within seconds of the incision. According to Rabbi Barry Dov Lerner, "[...]kosher slaughtering is the way that Jews try to minimize the pain and fear felt by animals being killed for food."

In 1978, a study incorporating EEG (electroencephalograph) with electrodes surgically implanted on the skull of 17 sheep and 15 calves, and conducted by Wilhelm Schulze et al. at the University of Veterinary Medicine in Germany concluded that "the slaughter in the form of a ritual cut is, if carried out properly, painless in sheep and calves according to EEG recordings and the missing defensive actions" (of the animals), but that "For sheep, there were in part severe reactions both in bloodletting cut and the pain stimuli" when Captive Bolt Stunning (CBS) was used, which is common in normal (non-kosher) slaughtering.

Independant scientific advisory groups such as the UK Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) and Animal welfare groups object to kosher slaughter on the basis that it can take several minutes for the animal to die and thus claim it causes suffering. Since the spinal cord is not severed completely at the first cut, it is thought that the slaughtered animal's nervous system continues to function during the initial moments of the slaughter, causing the animal to undergo a slow and painful death. In 2003 in the UK the FAWC concluded that the way Kosher meat is produced causes severe suffering to animals and should be banned immediately. Kosher butchers deny their method of killing animals is cruel and expressed anger over the recommendation.

In April 2008, the Food and Farming minister in the UK, Lord Rooker, stated that Kosher meat should be labelled when it is put on sale, so that the public can decide whether or not they want to buy food from animals that have bled to death. He was quoted as saying, "I object to the method of slaughter ... my choice as a customer is that I would want to buy meat that has been looked after and slaughtered in the most humane way possible.". The RSPCA supported Lord Rooker's views.

Specific kashrut laws counter some of the rituals of ancient times, such as eating only one leg of a live animal so that people would not have to deal with eating the entire animal at one time (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 56b); this law applies even to non-Jews and is part of the Noahide Laws. Most authorities have ruled that any unnecessary suffering during the animal's life will render otherwise kosher meat treife.[citation needed]

Kosher marketing and advertising

History of Kosher Marketing

In 1911, Proctor and Gamble was the first company to advertise that their product, Crisco, was kosher. Over the next 2 decades, companies such as Lender's Bagels, Maxwell House, Manichewitz, and Empire evolved and gave the kosher market more shelf space. In the 1960s, Hebrew National hotdogs launched a "we answer to a higher authority" campaign which was created to appeal to Jews and non-Jews alike. From that point on, kosher became a symbol for both quality and value.

The kosher market quickly expanded and with it more opportunities for kosher products. Menachem Lubinsky, CEO of LUBICOM Marketing Consulting, created Kosherfest in the 1980s in order to provide a forum for those involved in the kosher industry to meet and exchange ideas. Lubinsky projects that there in the next few years will be as many as 14 million kosher consumers and $40 billion in sales of kosher products.

Product labeling standards

The circled U indicates that this product is certified as kosher by the Orthodox Union (OU). The word "pareve" indicates that this product contains neither milk nor meat derived ingredients

For more details on this topic, see Hechsher.

Although reading the label of food products can identify obviously non-kosher ingredients, some countries allow manufacturers to neglect to mention certain ingredients; such 'hidden' ingredients can include lubricants, flavorings, and other additives, which in some cases, such as when natural flavourings are used, are more likely to be derived from non-kosher substances. However, producers of foods and food additives can contact Jewish religious authorities to have their products certified as kosher: this would most likely involve a visit to the manufacturing facilities by a committee from a rabbinic organisation, rather than by an individual rabbi, in order to inspect the production methods and contents, and if everything is sufficiently kosher a certificate would be issued.

Manufacturers sometimes identify the products which have received such certification by adding particular graphical symbols to the label; these symbols are known in Judaism as hechsherim. Due to differences in kashrut standards held by different organizations, the hechsheirim of certain Jewish authorities may at times be considered invalid by other Jewish authorities[citation needed]; the certification marks of the various rabbis and organisations are too numerous to list, but one of the most commonly used in the United States of America is that of the Union of Orthodox Congregations, who use a U inside a circle, symbolising the initials of Orthodox Union. A single K is sometimes used as a symbol for kosher, but since many countries do not allow letters to be trademarked (the method by which other symbols are protected from misuse), it only indicates that the company producing the product claims that it is kosher.

Many of the certification symbols are accompanied by additional letters or words to indicate the category of the product, according to Jewish religious law; the categorisation may conflict with legal classifications, especially in the case of food which Jewish religious law regards as dairy, but legal classification does not.

D:Dairy

M:Meat, including poultry

Pareve: food which is neither meat nor dairy

Fish

P:Passover-related (P is not used for Pareve)

In many cases constant supervision is required, because, for various reasons, such as changes in manufacturing processes, products which were once kosher may cease to be so; for example, a kosher lubricating oil may be replaced by one containing tallow, which many rabbinic authorities view as non-kosher. Such changes are often co-ordinated with the supervising rabbi, or supervising organisation, to ensure that new packaging, which will not suggest any hechsher or kashrut, is used for the new formulation. But in some cases, existing stocks of pre-printed labels with the hechsher may continue to be used on the now non-kosher product; for such reasons, there is an active grapevine among the Jewish community discussing which products are now questionable, as well as products which have become kosher but whose labels have yet to carry the hechsher. There are also newspapers and periodicals covering the subject of kashrut products.

Legal usage

Main article: Civil laws regarding Kashrut

Advertising standards laws in many jurisdictions prohibit the use of the phrase kosher in a product's labelling, unless it can be shown that the product conforms to Jewish dietary laws; however, the legal qualifications for conforming to Jewish dietary laws are often defined differently in different jurisdictions. For example, in some places the law may require that a rabbi certify the kashrut nature, in others the rules of kosher are fully defined in law, and in others still it is sufficient that the manufacturer only believes that the product complies with Jewish dietary regulations. In several cases, laws restricting the use of the term kosher have later been determined to be illegal religious interference.

Other religions

Islam has a related but different system, named halal, and both systems have a comparable system of ritual slaughter (shechita in Judaism and bah in Islam).

The Seventh-day Adventist Church expects adherence to the kosher laws, which they refer to as clean foods. Adventists believe that adherence to the laws is not only healthy, but also keeps the body, the metaphorical temple, clean. Many members practice vegetarianism and veganism.

See also

Civil laws regarding Kashrut

Kosher foods

Kosher style

Jewish cuisine

Judaism

Clean animals

Unclean animals

Shechita - Ritual slaughter

Islamic dietary laws

Islamic and Jewish dietary laws compared

Kosher tax

Bans on ritual slaughter

Scottish pork taboo

Taboo food and drink

Chazakah

Mashgiach

Mega-purple - a Kosher food additive

Notes

^ Stern, the author of How to Keep Kosher: A Comprehensive Guide to Understanding Jewish Dietary Laws, is one of a million or so American Jews (out of around six million total) who keeps her kitchen year-round according to the laws of kashruth, or kosher.

^ a b Eric Partridge, Tom Dalzell, Terry Victor, The New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English: J-Z, Volume 2, Taylor & Francis, 2006, p. 1172, ISBN041525938X

^ a b Worldnetweb.Princeton dictionary definition of Kosher.

^ a b Phythian, B. A. (1976). A concise dictionary of English slang and colloquialisms. The Writer, Inc.. pp. 110. ISBN 0871160994. "Kosher Genuine. Fair. Acceptable." 

^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 79

^ For a comprehensive review of the issue involving the difficulty that neither the hyrax nor the hare are ruminants, see Rabbi Natan Slifkin's "The Camel, the Hare and the Hyrax."

Nosson Slifkin (2004). The Camel, the Hare & the Hyrax: A Study of the Laws of Animals with One Kosher Sign in Light of Modern Zoology (illustrated ed.). Zoo Torah in association with Targum/Feldheim. ISBN 9781568713120. http://books.google.com/books?id=ONrqAAAACAAJ. .

^ Giraffe is kosher, rabbis rule in Israel

^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 82:1-5

^ Rabbi Air Z. Zivotofki, What's the Truth About Giraffe Meat!, Kashrut.com, http://www.kashrut.com/articles/giraffe/ 

^ Bavli Chullin 3:22-23

^ Kashrut.com: Are Turkeys Kosher?, part 2

^ Kashrut.com: Are Turkeys Kosher?, part 3

^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 83 and 84

^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 85

^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 87 et seq

^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 1-65

^ Shulchan Aruch Yoreh De'ah 66-78

^ Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chayim, 318:1

^ Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chayim, 431-452

^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 114

^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 113

^ a b Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 115

^ Many rely on lenient rulings by Rabbi Moshe Feinstein in Teshuvot Igrot Moshe. Yoreh De'ah 1:47 and other 20th century rabbinic authorities who rule that strict government supervision prevents the admixture of non-kosher milk, making supervision unnecessary. See also Rabbi Chaim Jachter. "Chalav Yisrael - Part I: Rav Soloveitchik's View". http://www.koltorah.org/RAVJ/13-7%20Chalav%20Yisrael%20-%20Part%201.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-02. 

^ Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah 112, Orach Chayim 603

^ http://www.star-k.org/kashrus/kk-medi-terumos.htm

^ William H. Shea, Clean and Unclean Meats, Biblical Research Institute, December 1998 (archived from the original on 2008-02-12)

^ Mishneh Torah Korbanot, Temurah 4:13 (in eds. Frankel; "Rambam L'Am")

^ Letter of Aristeas, 145-154

^ Macht (September-October 1953) (pdf). An Experimental Pharmalogical Appreciation of Leviticus XI and Deuteronomy XIV. XXXVII. Bulletin of the History of Medicine. pp. 444450. http://members.dslextreme.com/users/hollymick/Macht1953.pdf. 

^ Macht 1953 op. cit.

^ David I. Macht, Medical Leaves 1940; 3:174-184

^ Macht, D.I. , Contributions to phytopharmacology or the applications of plant physiology to medical problems, Science 1930, 71:302

^ Macht, D.I., Science and the Bible, Science (1951) 114: 505

^ at the time of writing

^ Ministry Magazine, March 1953, p37-38 "This Question of Unclean Meats": Responses to Macht's study from heads of biology depts.

^ The Chassidic Masters on Food and Eating, chabad.org

^ Meat, chabad.org

^ (Hebrew), chabad.org

^ Re'eh, rabbifriedman.org (archived from the original on 2007-08-29).

^ a b Gordon J. Wenham, The Theology of Unclean Food, The Evangelical Quarterly 53, January March 1981, p.6-15

^ Marvin Harris, Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches

^ Brick, Michael; Patrick Healy (2004-06-01). "There's Something in the Water, And It May Not Be Strictly Kosher". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C04E5D71631F932A35755C0A9629C8B63. Retrieved 2009-03-17. 

^ "Orthodox Jews worry water isn kosher". Daily Times. 2004-06-03. http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_3-6-2004_pg9_9. Retrieved 2009-03-17. 

^ Jewish dietary laws

^ Tractate Rosh Hashanah 3a, Schottenstein Edition, Mesorah Publications Ltd.

^ Brief note on kosher pickles in "The Pickle Wing" of nyfoodmuseum.org

^ Kashrut: Jewish Dietary Laws "Judaism 101"

^ The rennet must be kosher, either microbial or from special productions of animal rennet using kosher calf stomachs. Retrieved August 10, 2005.

^

^

^ Schulze W, Schultze-Petzold H, Hazem AS, Gross R. Experiments for the objectification of pain and consciousness during conventional (captive bolt stunning) and religiously mandated (itual cutting) slaughter procedures for sheep and calves. Deutsche Tierrztliche Wochenschrift 1978 Feb 5;85(2):62-6. English translation by Dr Sahib M. Bleher

^ Halal and Kosher slaughter 'must end'

^ Halal and kosher meat should not be slipped in to food chain, says minister

^ Seventh-Day Adventist Fundamental Beliefs

External links

Dietary laws from the Torah and the Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah)

ABCs of Kosher

A useful guide to the issues of kashrut

Further reading

Look up kosher in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Kosher

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on

Kosher

Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An analysis of the concepts of pollution and taboo, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1966

Samuel Dresner, Seymour Siegel and David Pollock The Jewish Dietary Laws, United Synagogue, New York, 1982

Binyomen Forst, The Laws of Kashrus, Moznaim, 1999

Isidore Grunfeld, The Jewish Dietary Laws, London: Soncino, 1972

Isaac Klein, A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice, JTSA, 1992

James M. Lebeau, The Jewish Dietary Laws: Sanctify Life, United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism, New York, 1983

Yacov Lipschutz, Kashruth: A Comprehensive Background and Reference Guide to the Principles of Kahruth. New York: Mesorah Publications Ltd, 1989

Munk, Shechita: Religious, Historical and Scientific Perspectives, Feldheim Publishers, New York, 1976

Aharon Pfeuffer Kitzur Halachot Basar B'Chalav

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Simon the Tanner

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The miracle of moving the mountain

Coptic icon of St. Simon the Shoemaker (depicted as a one-eyed man carrying a sack of water, as he used - every morning before going to work - to carry water to the sick and the old who could not fetch water for themselves)

Saint Simon the Tanner lived towards the end of the tenth century when Egypt was ruled by the Fatimid Caliph Al-Muizz, and Abraam the Syrian was the 62nd Coptic Pope (975 - 978). doggie daycare

At the time, many Copts (Coptic Christians) in Egypt were engaged in handicrafts. Saint Simon worked in one of those crafts widespread in Babylon (Old Cairo) which was tanning, a craft still known there till this day. This profession involved also other crafts that depend on the process, from where St. Simon carried several titles related to skins; Saint Simon the Tanner, the Cobbler, the Shoemaker. shock dog collar

The Caliph Al-Muizz, who reigned during 972-975 AD , used to invite different religious leaders to debate in his presence. In one of those meetings in which the patriarch Abraham, also known as Pope Abraam and a Jew named Yaqub (Jacob) Ibn Yusuf Ibn Killis (and in another account of this story, was known as Moses) were present, Abraham got the upper hand in the debate. Plotting to take revenge, Ibn Killis quoted the verse where Jesus Christ, said in Matthew: If you have faith as small as a mustard seed, you can say to the mountain, Move from here to there, and it will move, nothing will be impossible for you (Matthew 17:20), and demanded that the Pope prove that his religion is right by means of this. After heading Ibn Killis say this, the caliph asked Abraham What sayest thou concerning this word? Is it your gospel or not? The patriach answered Yes, it is in it. After hearing Abraham answer, the caliph demanded that this very miracle be performed by Abraham hand, or else he would be killed by the hand of the sword. It was then after hearing this that the patriarch asked for three days to complete the miracle. dog shock collar

The Hanging Church, Cairo, built in the 3rd or 4th century AD.

Abraham compiled a group of monks, priests and elders. He told them to all stay in the church for three days for a penance. On the morning of the third day, Abraham was praying in the Church of the Holy Virgin al-Mullaqa, when he saw the Holy Virgin. The Holy Virgin told him to go to the great market. She said to him: here thou wilt find a one-eyed man carrying on his shoulder a jar full of water; seize him, for he it is at whose hands this miracle shall be manifested.9] Abraham listened to the Holy Virgin and went to the market where he met the man the Holy Virgin spoke of. The man who the Virgin spoke of was Simeon the tanner, who had plucked out his eye because of a passage from the bible (Matthew 5:29-30) which said: If your right eye causes you to sin, gouge it out and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to be thrown into hell. And if your right hand causes you to sin, cut it off and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to go into hell.

Simeon told Abraham to go out with his priests and all his people to the mountain with the caliph and all his soldiers. Simeon then told Abraham to cry out O Lord, have mercy three times, and each time to make the sign of the cross over the mountain. The patriarch followed the words of Simeon the tanner (who was in the crowd of people) and the mountain was lifted. After the miracle was performed in the presence of the Caliph, the Pope turned left and right looking for St. Simon the Tanner, but he had disappeared and no one could find him (a sign of the saint's great humility).The caliph then turned to Abraham and said O patriarch, I have recognized the correctness of thy faith.

Shortly after the miracle took place, Al-Muizz decided to convert to Christianity. A baptismal font, large enough for the immersion of a grown man, was built for him in the Church of Saint Mercurius. This font still exists today and is known as aamoudiat Al-Sultan, which means, Baptistry of the Sultan. In commemoration of this miracle, the Coptic Orthodox Church observes three days of fasting before the beginning of the Nativity Fast (Advent).

The Monastery of Saint Simon

The Monastery of St. Simeon (Dair Anb Samn) is located on the west bank of the Nile behind the Zabbaleen(Zabbalin) village. The Zabbaleen village is a village where the garbage collectors of Cairo live. In 1969 the then Governor of Cairo decided to move all of the garbage collectors to one of the hills of Mokattam (Muquattam). In 1987 there were approximately 15,000 people living in the Zabbaleen village.

Reaching the monastery is not an easy feat and is difficult to get to, due to having to wind through the Zabbaleen village. In the early 1900 the monastery was only accessible by either crossing the desert from Qubbet al-Hawa or by sailing across the Nile from Aswn and then walking up the Wd al-Qurqur. The monastery, which was originally dedicated to Anb Hadra of Aswn, was just recently erected and dedicated to Saint Simeon.

The monastery was built in the 7th century and reconstructed in the 10th century. By the 13th century, however, the monastery was in ruin and there was an inscription found in the monastery that said that a Mutammar Ali had visited in 1295 A.D. Although though the monastery was ruined the main features of the monastery were preserved.

One of the churches in the monastery had numerous Coptic inscriptions inside and there were slabs of stones giving the history of many of the monks that had lived there.

Relics

The relics of St. Simon were discovered in 1991 in St. Mary's Coptic Orthodox Church in Babylon, Saint Mary Church (Babylon Al-Darag) in Coptic Cairo.

See also

Coptic Fasts

Coptic Saints

Coptic Cairo

Al-Muizz Lideenillah

References

^ Lara Iskander. "The Monastery of Saint Simon(Simeon) the Tanner". http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/tanner.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-13. 

^ Meinardus, Otto F.A (2002). optic Saints and Pilgrimages, p.58. The American University in Cairo Press.,Cairo.

^ Meinardus, Otto F.A (2002). optic Saints and Pilgrimages, p.58. The American University in Cairo Press.,Cairo.

^ Meinardus, Otto F.A (2002). optic Saints and Pilgrimages, p.58. The American University in Cairo Press.,Cairo.

^ Lara Iskander. "The Monastery of Saint Simon(Simeon) the Tanner". http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/tanner.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-13. 

^ Meinardus, Otto F.A (2002). optic Saints and Pilgrimages, p.58. The American University in Cairo Press.,Cairo.

^ Meinardus, Otto F.A (2002). optic Saints and Pilgrimages, p.58. The American University in Cairo Press.,Cairo.

^ Meinardus, Otto F.A (2002). optic Saints and Pilgrimages, p.58. The American University in Cairo Press.,Cairo.

^ Meinardus, Otto F.A (2002). optic Saints and Pilgrimages, p.58. The American University in Cairo Press.,Cairo.

^ Meinardus, Otto F.A (2002). optic Saints and Pilgrimages, p.58. The American University in Cairo Press.,Cairo.

^ Meinardus, Otto F.A (1965). hristian Egypt Ancient and Modern, p.328. French Institute of Oriental Archeology.,Cairo.

^ Lara Iskander. "The Monastery of Saint Simon(Simeon) the Tanner". http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/tanner.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-13. 

^ Meinardus, Otto F.A (1965). hristian Egypt Ancient and Modern, p.328. French Institute of Oriental Archeology.,Cairo.

^ Lara Iskander. "The Monastery of Saint Simon(Simeon) the Tanner". http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/tanner.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-13. 

^ Meinardus, Otto F.A (1965). hristian Egypt Ancient and Modern, p.329. French Institute of Oriental Archeology.,Cairo.

^ Meinardus, Otto F.A (1965). hristian Egypt Ancient and Modern, p.329. French Institute of Oriental Archeology.,Cairo.

External links

Simon the Shoemaker Orthodoxwiki.org

Categories: 10th-century births | 10th-century deaths | Egyptian saints | Burials at the Church of the Holy Virgin (Babylon El-Darag) | 10th-century Christian saints

Yeoman

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Etymology

The expanded forms of yeoman, such as yongeman or yongerman, are possibly of Anglo-Saxon or northwestern Germanic origin and eventually became yeman or yoman in the Middle Ages (with variations such as yoeman, etc.).[citation needed] In the early 14th century, the word developed the more recognisable modern spelling of yeoman.[citation needed] In 1363 the vernacular form of the English language was officially recognised as the national language of the Kingdom of England,[citation needed] and the French term valet (used as the formal language), and the Latin term valectus (used in the courts) were replaced by the term yeoman. The term yeoman, primarily identified as "servant", is noted throughout the Calendar Patent Rolls in the early 1300s.[citation needed]

The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale appears in Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. extra loud alarm clocks

History weather chanel

This section does not cite any references or sources. grandfather clocks

Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009)

Early Middle Ages

In Germania, Tacitus writes of "young men chosen from every district (pagus), who are swift on foot, and with this swiftness they support the cavalry, fixed in number (100) and from this they take their 'name of honour'". It is not clear what Tacitus means by "name of honor", but he may be referring to "the hundred men". In Anglo-Saxon England the "hundred" became a unit used for raising the fyrd (militia), with its own court and legal status.

In many ways the ancient "yeoman" is very similar to the "yeomanry" today, volunteers of the Territorial Army of the United Kingdom. Yeoman military corps takes origin from the volunteer cavalry in the mid-18th century, later becoming known as the Yeomanry Cavalry in the 1790s.

The term "yeoman" is also used to define a man who follows a chief, or a lord, in ancient times known as gau judices (district chiefs). The term is similar in concept to geneatas, meaning a warrior companion. Heartho-geneatas were hearth warriors, who formed the "comitatus" or warrior retinues of lords. Geneatas is the origin of the more modern term knight. In the Brythonic language the term gweis is similarly used in the same context as a young freeborn person in service. The ancient Brythonic word gweis is very similar to gewi- or gawi- prefixes in Gothic. Both languages are now extinct, though ancient Brythonic language has evolved into modern Welsh and Cornish, while Cumbrian (Northern Welsh) and many other Britonnic dialects are now extinct.

High Middle Ages

Throughout the medieval period the term yeoman was used within the royal and noble households to indicate a servant's rank, degree, position or status. A yeoman during the Middle Ages was commonly used in feudal or private warfare. Yeoman is also believed to come from the word yonge man or iunge man ("young man"), possibly as a freeborn servant (serviens or sergeant) ranking between the esquire (shield escort, from scutum) and page (pagus, meaning "rustic" and later "young errand boy").

Long before the concept of chivalry and the Crusades were born from the ideas of Christianity, the term "knight" (from cniht) originally meant "boy." Terms such as radman, radcniht, or radknight ("riding man," "road man," "riding boy," "road boy/page" were used). The difference of terms helped to distinguish the young riding men (yeomen) from the riding boys (pages) who provided a riding or road service. It also indicates a path of career progression within a noble or royal household.

All the fighting classes of men in the Middle Ages from the knights (in particular knight's bachelors), squires, yeomen, to pages were usually young servants; the degree of importance or status of each changed over time. Many serving men (serviens or sergeants) would usually be promoted to various positions of importance within the king's or lord's household.

The term yongermen is found in text as early as the 12th century, and the term geongramanna is found in Beowulf in a much earlier period (700-800). Serving men of districts, since the days of the Gau polities in Germania, and the stretches of the Germanic peoples throughout Western Europe immediately after the collapse of the Roman Empire would most likely be young men, or young men of the district. Yeoman or gauman within the definition of both land and/or service of a young man appeared mostly settled around the border regions or remote country sides of their districts, or kingdoms (both modern and ancient); thus a connection or association with pagus (pages), or rustics to the term yeoman.

Use of the term

If the term yeoman is associated with land, or degree of land ownership, then it may have its ancient roots in the early Anglo-Saxon rule of England or earlier (thus coming full circle to its most likely etymological roots). In ancient times the land was a strong indicator of social status, and wealth, since the period known as the Dark Ages, and the term yeoman was used in the 16th century to denote the more prosperous, often having a mixture of copyhold, freehold, or leasehold land.

Not all yeomen owned land as many were indentured or feudal servants in a castle. In earlier Anglo Saxon rule, the class of 'geneatas' would most likely be the classification a 'yeoman' in this period as an aristocratic peasantry.

The yeoman would be the connection between royalty and nobility to the peasantry, thus a middling class of sorts in feudal or manorial service to either the king, or a lord. Also possibly identified within a class of libri homini (freemen) within Domesday, the yeoman in service to a king or lord would be known as serviens/sergeants, or valet/valectus during the Norman period. There also men known as 'socmen' or 'sokemen', usually derived from Anglian or Danish sources, equivalent in status as 'radman', thus combining land status and servile status as equals.

Usage as a compliment or praise

This is most likely based upon the historical achievements of winning numerous battles during the Hundred Years' War when the odds and numbers were stacked against the yeoman archers in these conflicts. It also may have been used to denote the excellent or superior service given by a king servant performing heroic duties such as preventing an assassination attempt on his life, or protecting his castle or palace (such as we see in the modern day Yeomen of the Guard and the Yeomen Warders of the Tower of London).

The term used in context such as:

The forester provided eoman service in finding the lost children in the woods.

The Hubble Telescope has done eoman service or eoman duty since it was launched in 1990.

He made a eoman effort to clean the garage.

The security guard did eoman work last night by staying alert and preventing a break-in entry after working very long hours in austere conditions.

The English yeoman

Yeomen were originally a class of British or English landholding (freehold, leasehold and copyhold) farmers in the late 14th century to the 18th century. The amount of land owned and the wealth of the English yeoman varied from place to place. Many yeomen were prosperous, mixed with the minor county or regional gentry and some even rented land to gentleman landowners. Some were entitled to be classed as gentlemen but did not pursue it, as it was cheaper to remain a yeoman. Some yeomen of the later Tudor and Stuart period shared the heritage and ancestry of the occupational medieval yeoman, as attested mainly by weapons found above the fireplace mantles (especially in the border shires) of the West Midlands of England.

Yeomen were called upon to serve their sovereign and their country well after the Middle Ages, for example in the Yeomanry Cavalry of the late 1700s and later Imperial Yeomanry of the late 1890s.

Most yeomen had servants or labourers with whom they would work if they had the means to afford such services. Some yeomen had more wealth than the minor gentry, but remained classed as yeomen by choice rather than by necessity. Often it was hard to distinguish minor gentry from the wealthier yeomen, and wealthier husbandmen from the poorer yeomen.

Sir Anthony Richard Wagner, Garter Principal King of Arms, wrote that "a Yeoman would not normally have less than 100 acres" (40 hectares) and in social status is one step down from the Gentry, but above, say, a husbandman. (English Genealogy, Oxford, 1960, pps: 125-130).

The Concise Oxford Dictionary, (edited by H.W. & F.G. Fowler, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1972 reprint, p. 1516) states that a yeoman is "a person qualified by possessing free land of 40/- annual [feudal] value, and who can serve on juries and vote for a Knight of the Shire. He is sometimes described as a small landowner, a farmer of the middle classes."

In the United States, yeomen were identified in the 18th and 19th Centuries as non-slaveholding small landowning family farmers. Yeomen, because they owned no slaves of their own, frequently hired slaves at harvest time to help in the fields. In an area where land was poor, like eastern Tennessee, the landowning yeomen were typically subsistence farmers, but grew some crops for the market. Whether they engaged in subsistence or commercial agriculture, they controlled far more modest landholdings than those of the planters, more likely in the range of over fifty to two hundred acres, rather than five hundred or more acres.

Yeoman medieval obligations

Yeomen were identified in the Middle Ages as persons owning land worth approximately 40 to 80 shillings annually, roughly between Hide and 1 Hide (about 30 to 120 acres, or 12 to 50 hectares). In the early 12th century, 40 acres (16 hectares) of land was worth about 40 to 50 shillings. The Assize of Arms of 1252 gave instructions for the small landholder to be armed and trained with a bow and those of more wealth (wealthy yeomen) would be required to possess and be trained with sword, dagger and the longbow (the war bow).

The Assize of Arms of 1252 AD identify a class long identified with the eomanry, being a 40-shilling freeholder, and indicates "Those with land worth annual 40s-100s will be armed/trained with bow and arrow, sword, buckler and dagger". The description of societal standing of landowning persons mentioned in the 1252 Assize of Arms of who is to own and train with certain weapons epitomises the Knight's Yeoman such as the one in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (Yeoman's Portrait in the General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales).

Yeoman archers and yew war bows

The English war bow, known as the longbow (the main weapon of a yeoman archer) was typically but not always made of yew wood, often Wych Elm and other woods were used for making bow staves. Though yeomen archers are inextricably tied to the English War Yew Bow, it was the Spanish, French and Italian yew that was highly sought after because of its superior qualities of growth and the extremely restricted availability over English Yew in the late Middle Ages.

The 'yeoman archer' was unique to England and Wales (in particular, the southeast Wales area of Monmouthshire with the famed archers of Gwent, Glamorgan, Crickhowell, and Abergavenny regions, and South West England with the Royal Forest of Dean, Kingswood Royal Forest near Bristol, and the New Forest). Though the Kentish Weald and indeed Cheshire archers were noted for their skills, as well the Ettrick Archers of Scotland, it appears the bulk of the 'yeomanry' was from the more remote and border regions of England, Wales and Scotland (English and Welsh Marches; The Borders).

The original Yeomen of the Guard (originally archers) chartered in 1485 were all most likely of Briton descent (Welsh, Breton, etc), established by King Henry VII, himself a Briton who was exiled in Brittany during the Wars of the Roses. He recruited his forces throughout mostly Wales and the West Midlands of England on his victorious journey to Bosworth Field.

The Welsh have the honour of being the first to be attested in written history in using the 'longbow' made of yew and elm (circa 650 AD) either against the Mercians, or as allies of the Mercians against Northumbria. The incident at Abergavenny Castle, where a Welsh arrow pierced through armour and the legs of an English knight was certainly not unknown to King Henry II, and his grandson Henry III who created or signed the Assize of Arms 1252 identifying the 'war bow' as a national weapon for classes of men who held land under 80s or 100s annually. The 'Yongermen' fell under this classification. By Edward I's reign the bulk of the archers were Welsh, who defeated the Scots and eventually would be used with great success by King Edward III in the Hundred Years' War. The famous eoman archers drawn from the Macclesfield Hundred and the Forest districts of the Cheshire region were specially appointed as bodyguard archers for King Richard II.

Yeoman positions in society

The yeoman represented a status between the aristocratic knights and the lower-class foot soldiers and household servants (pages). The yeoman archer was typically mounted and fought either on foot or on horseback, in contrast with infantry archers, and came to be applied to societal standing as a farmer in particular during the 14th century to 18th century. A yeoman during the 12th century and 13th century was primarily a household and military (semi-feudal and feudal) term later associated with the days of private warfare.

Yeomen are also noted as providing guard escorts to deliveries of victuals and supplies (not only fighting as an elite archer but also as a guard to the baggage train as well a protector of the nobility and royalty) to the expeditions of the Hundred Years' War. They also provided escorts for the sovereign and great nobles on their journeys and their pilgrimages across the realm and overseas. Yeomen of the Crown were essentially agents of the king who were allowed to sit and dine with knights and squires of any lord's house or estate. At retirement they were offered tenure of stewardship of royal forests at the king choosing.

Later in Medieval history and through the Renaissance, the yeomanry shared attributes with both the upper class and working classes, though they had little in common with today's urban middle class. The yeomanry was the first class of the commoners (peasants), in Saxon days would be the equivalent to geneatas or villager. The yeoman was more military and bound to the manor or estate, comparable to the radman or radcniht (radknight) who would provide escorts, deliver messages, erect fences for the hunt, and repair bridges. He would be given land (copyhold or sometimes freehold) by his lord for services well rendered. Many similarities exist between radmen/radknights and yeomen of the crown, as yeomen had many of the same tasks, though he was not as heavily imposed with the intense labor requirements as the radman/radknight had during his time.

Historical duties

Duties of yeomen were manifold from the Middle Ages through to the 19th century. They were usually constables of their parish, and sometimes chief constables of the district, shire or hundred. Many yeomen would hold status as bailiffs for the High Sheriff, or for the shire, or hundred. Other civic duties would include churchwarden, bridge warden, and other warden duties. It was also common for a yeoman to be an overseer for his parish.

Yeomen, whether working for a lord, king, shire, knight, district or parish are noted for their civic duties as localised or municipal police forces raised by or led by the gentry. Some of these duties and mostly that of constable and bailiff would be carried down through family traditions. Yeomen are seemingly in a role of ranging, roaming, surveying, and policing throughout their social history. In Chaucer's Canterbury Friar's Tale, a yeoman who is a bailiff of the forest who tricks the Summoner turns out to be the devil ready to grant wishes already made. Yeomen also had much wealth and free time. They were excellent farmers and did much excavating.

In the early Middle English period (noted in the text Pseudo Cnut De Foresta Constitutiones written in the late 11th century), the onger men chosen of liberi homini mediocre were to range the royal forests and is the first known use of the word yeoman being associated with the forests (both greenwood and royal or manorial hunting forests). The chief forester of such royal forests was stationed at the nearest castle and was also the constable of the castle with his deputy foresters or yeomen assisting in the maintenance and affairs of the royal forests.

The earlier word Franklin was the yeoman's equivalent (a wealthy peasant landowner or freeholder or village official). Franklins in their days would typically be village leaders (aldermen), constables or mayors. Yeomen would find that status in the 14th century as many of them became leaders, constables, sheriffs, justices of the peace, mayors and significant leaders of their country districts. It was too much, for even alets known as eoman archers were forbidden to be returned to parliament, indicating they even held power at a level never before held by the upper class of commoners. The further away the district from gentry or burgesses, the more power a yeoman held in office, as well attested in statutes during the reign of Henry VIII indicating yeomen along with knights and squires who have the leading of men to be in charge of certain functions.

A yeoman could be equally comfortable working on his farm, educating himself from books, or enjoying country sports such as shooting and hunting. By contrast members of the landed gentry and the aristocracy did not farm their land themselves, but let it to tenant farmers. Yeomen in the Tudor and Stuart period could also be found leasing or renting lands to the minor gentry. However, eomen and enant farmers were the two main divisions of the rural middle class in traditional British society, and the yeoman was a respectable, honorable class and ranked above the husbandmen, artisans, and laborers.

Isaac Newton, as well many other famous people such as Thomas Jefferson hailed from the yeoman class of society. Isaac Newton inherited a small farm which paid the bills for his academic work. Many yeoman fathers would have the means to send their sons to school to qualify to join the professions, and become classed as gentlemen. Many families of yeoman status and established good standing would also have sons who would serve in the royal or great noble households providing not menial, but honorable service, as his social status or degree in society was equal in the royal or noble household.

Images

The term also suggests someone upright, sturdy, honest and trustworthy, qualities attributed to the Yeomen of the Crown; and in the 13th century the Yeomen of the Chamber were described as virtuous, cunning, skillful, courteous, and experts in archery chosen out of every great Noble's house in England. The King's Yeoman or King's Valectus (Valetti) is the earliest usage in a recognisable form such as King's Yeman or King's Yoman. Possibly the concept is derived from King's Geneatas, meaning either companion or a follower of a king. In ancient times before the establishments of feudalism and manorialism, a yeoman was a follower of a district (gau) chief or judice.

Comparable classes of people

The term is sometimes applied to people of similar status in other traditional societies. The ranklin is an example meaning a freeman and sometimes meaning a French or Norman freeholder. Franklin milities would basically be the equivalent of a yeoman in the middle-ages and the yeoman the equivalent of a franklin in the late middle-ages.

The yeoman belonged to a class or status of fighter (usually known as in the third order of the fighting class between that of a squire and a page). This status was very different from what was occurring on the continent in the days of feudalism, where the gap between commoners and gentry was far wider, causing much division between the two classes in medieval society. Though a middling class existed on the continent, it was not well respected or held in such high-esteem as the yeoman of England was during the time when the class existed.

Other references to yeoman

Yeomanry Cavalry refers to the extrajudicial military force organised by the property-owning class to defend against French invasion in 18th-century England as well as to protect British occupation in 18th-century Ireland. Yeomanry Cavalry was officially formed in 1794 (formed unofficially circa. 1760s as a Volunteer Cavalry), it eventually became an expeditionary force known as the Imperial Yeomanry in 1899, and then was absorbed into the Territorial Army in 1907. Many units retain their 'Yeomanry' designation today and have seen service in both the World Wars and modern times, including the current "War on Terrorism". This contrasts with the title of Gentlemen Cavaliers of the Household Cavalry regiments.

Yeoman Riders of the Coursers Stables, Yeoman Riders of the Hunting Stables, Yeoman Riders of the Race and Running Horses, First Yeoman Rider, Second Yeoman Rider. (See British History Online.)

Yeomen of the Guard were established in 1485 AD after the Battle of Bosworth Field and were officially chartered by King Henry VII for their loyal service during the war. Later, King Henry VIII established the Yeomen Warders of the Tower of London, which is the oldest of the Royal Bodyguards in England, and one of the oldest Royal Bodyguards and military organisations in the world. In essence Yeomen of the Guard and Yeomen Warders are direct modern day links to the days of warfare in the Middle Ages.

Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod is a deputy position to the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod and is the deputy sergeant-at-arms in the House of Lords. The position is an official figure in the parliaments of some Commonwealth countries.

There are several Yeoman positions in the staff of the Royal Household, under the Master of the Household.

According to Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe, Robin Hood's band of Merry Men is largely Yeomen.

In William Caxton's print of the Canterbury Tales there is a woodcut engraving of the knight's yeoman.

In falconry, the bird for the Yeoman is a Goshawk, a forest bird.

Sir Gawain states that he was made a yeoman at Yule in Le Morte d'Arthur by Sir Thomas Malory.

The Yeoman is also the mascot for the Oberlin College athletic teams.

The Yeoman/Yeowoman is the former mascot for York University in Toronto, Ontario (Canada). The mascot was changed in 2003 to, and still remains as, a lion.

University of Cambridge, and some other traditional universities, possess (or once possessed) an office by the name of the Yeoman Bedell (cf. Esquire Bedell), which originally consisted primarily of running errands, such as serving summons to appear in the University's courts. Largely the office has either been abolished as a medievealism, or retained in a purely ceremonial form. At the University of Sydney the office has been retained as the manager in charge of the University's caretaking and security services.

Yeoman is also a petty officer's job (or rating) in both the U.S. Navy and Coast Guard, as well as a similar clerical position in Starfleet in the fictional universe of Star Trek: The Original Series. During World War I, women were enlisted in the United States Naval Reserve Force as Yeomen to provide some of the additional workforce needed to support the war, working mainly in clerical positions. They were designated Yeoman (F) to distinguish them from their male counterparts and were released from the service shortly after the war ended.

The sinister supporter of the arms of Wisconsin is a yeoman, though the figure incorrectly shown on the flag seems to be a miner, a miner's helmet not being mentioned in the blazon.

The sergeant flagman at Windsor Castle carries the title of 'Yeoman of the Round Tower'.

The Dr. Seuss book The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins includes a 'Yeoman of the Bowmen', a master archer who shoots a hat off the title character's head.

In JAG, Petty Officer First Class Jason Tiner is the commanding officer, AJ Chegwidden's yeoman.

In Chasers, William McNamara plays the "timid but trampish" yeoman, Seaman Apprentice Eddie Devane.

See also

Plain Folk of the Old South, the American equivalent

Notes

^ American Heritage Dictionary. Retrieved September 8, 2009.

^ Encyclopedia Britannica Online, 2008. Retrieved September 8, 2009.

^ "Yeoman Definition | Definition of Yeoman at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/yeoman. Retrieved 2009-12-15. 

^ "Re: Yeoman's work". Phrases.org.uk. http://www.phrases.org.uk/bulletin_board/44/messages/54.html. Retrieved 2009-12-15. 

Further reading

Allen, Robert C. Enclosure and the Yeoman (1992) Oxford U. Press 376p.

Broad, John. "The Fate of the Midland Yeoman: Tenants, Copyholders, and Freeholders as Farmers in North Buckinghamshire, 1620-1800," Continuity & Change 1999 14(3): 325-347,

Campbell, Mildred. The English Yeoman

Hallas, Christine S. "Yeomen and Peasants? Landownership Patterns in the North Yorkshire Pennines c. 1770-1900," Rural History 1998 9(2): 157-176,

External links

Look up yeoman in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica article yeoman.

Yeomen of the Guard

Official Yeomen of the Guard

Yeoman Board Game

Knight's Yeoman

The Yeoman Warders

Worcester Yeomanry Cavalry

Categories: Agrarianism | History of the British Isles | Etymologies | History of archeryHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from December 2009 | All articles needing additional references | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from August 2009

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