Economy of Libya

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Macro-economic trend

The GDP per capital of Libya soared by 676% in the 1960s and a further 480% in the 1970s. However such fantastic growth rates proved unsustainable in the face of global oil recession and international sanctions. Consequently the GDP per capital shrank by 42% in the 1980s. Successful diversification and integration into the international community helped current GDP per capita to cut further deterioration to just 3.2% in the 1990s.

Below is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Libya at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Libyan dinars (LYD). folding beach chair

Year folding beach chairs

GDP folding camping chair

USD to LYD

Inflation Index

(2000 = 100)

Per Capita Income

(as % of USA)

1980

10,882

0.29 LYD

25

104.37

1985

8,227

0.29 LYD

45

46.13

1990

8,185

0.28 LYD

57

30.42

1995

10,679

0.34 LYD

89

24.45

2000

17,668

0.51 LYD

100

20.70

2005

50,693

1.22 LYD

80

18.49

Notes:

1. For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 0.77 Libyan Dinars only.

Average wages in 2007 hover around $53-65 per day.

Oil Sector

Libya is an OPEC member and holds the largest proven oil reserves in Africa (followed by Nigeria and Algeria), 41.5 Gbbl (6.60109 m3) as of January 2007, up from 39.1 Gbbl (6.22109 m3) in 2006. About 80% of Libya proven oil reserves are located in the Sirte Basin, which is responsible for 90% of the country oil output. The state-owned National Oil Corporation (NOC) dominates Libya's oil industry, along with smaller subsidiaries, which combined account for around 50% of the country's oil output. Among NOC's subsidiaries, the largest oil producer is the Waha Oil Company (WOC), followed by the Agoco, Zueitina Oil Company (ZOC), and Sirte Oil Company (SOC). Oil resources, which account for approximately 95% of export earnings, 75% of government receipts, and over 50% of GDP. Oil revenues constitute the principal foreign exchange source. Much of the country's income has been lost to waste, corruption, conventional armaments purchases, and attempts to develop WMD, as well as large donations to developing countries in attempts to increase Qadhafi's influence in Africa and elsewhere. Despite the country's relatively high per capita GDP, government mismanagement has led to high inflation and increased import prices, resulting in declining living standards. Reflecting the heritage of the command economy, three quarters of employment is in the public sector, and private investment remains small at around 2% of GDP.

Falling world oil prices in the early 1980s and economic sanctions caused a serious decline in economic activity, eventually leading to a slow private sector rehabilitation. At 2.6% per year on average, real GDP growth was modest and volatile during the 1990s. Libya's GDP grew in 2001 due to high oil prices, the end of a long cyclical drought, and increased foreign direct investment following the suspension of UN sanctions in 1999. Real GDP growth has been boosted by high oil revenues, reaching 4.6% in 2004 and 3.5% in 2005. Despite efforts to diversify the economy and encourage private sector participation, extensive controls of prices, credit, trade, and foreign exchange constrain growth.

Although UN sanctions were suspended in 1999, foreign investment in the Libyan gas and oil sectors were severely curtailed due to the U.S. Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA), which caps the amount foreign companies can invest in Libya yearly at $20 million (lowered from $40 million in 2001). As of May 2006, the U.S. has removed Libya from its list of states that sponsor terrorism and has normalised ties and removed sanctions. This clears the road for U.S. oil companies to exploit Libyan oil and is expected to have a positive impact on the Libyan economy. The NOC hopes to raise oil production from 1.80 million bpd in 2006 to 2 million bpd by 2008. FDI into the oil sector is likely, which is attractive due to its low cost of oil recovery, high oil quality, and proximity to European markets. Most Libyan oil is sold on a term basis, including to the country's Oilinvest marketing network in Europe; to companies like Agip, OMV, Repsol YPF, Tupras, CEPSA, and Total; and small volumes to Asian and South African companies.

Statistic

Amount

Proven Oil Reserves (2007E)

41.5 b/bbl

Oil Production (2006E)

1.8 mmbd (95% crude)

Oil Consumption (2006E)

284,000 bbl/d (45,200 m3/d)

Net Oil Exports (2006E)

1,525 Mbpd

Crude Oil Distillation Capacity (2006E)

378 mbpd

Proven Natural Gas Reserves (2007E)

52.7 tcf

Natural Gas Production (2006E)

39910^9 cu ft (1.131010 m3)

Natural Gas consumption (2005E)

20610^9 cu ft (5.8109 m3)

Notes:

1. Energy Information Administration (2007)

Field Development and Exploration

In November 2005, Repsol YPF discovered a significant oil deposit of light, sweet crude in the Murzuq Basin. Industry experts believe the discovery to be one of the biggest made in Libya for several years. Repsol YPF is joined by a consortium of partners including OMV, Total and Norsk Hydro. Also located in Murzuq Basin is Eni Elephant field. In October 1997, a consortium led by British company Lasmo, along with Eni and a group of five South Korean companies, announced that it had discovered large recoverable crude reserves 465 miles (748 km) south of Tripoli. Lasmo estimated field production would cost around $1 per barrel. Elephant began production in February 2004.

WOC's Waha fields currently produce around 350,000 bbl/d (56,000 m3/d). In 2005, ConocoPhillips and co-venturers reached an agreement with NOC to return to its operations in Libya and extend the Waha concession 25 years. ConocoPhillips operates the Waha fields with a 16.33% share in the project. NOC has the largest share of the Waha concession, and additional partners include Marathon and Amerada Hess.

Refining and Downstream

Libya has five domestic refineries:

Refinery

Capacity

Operator

Zawia Refinery

120,000

ZOC

Ras Lanuf Refinery

220,000

Rasco

El-Brega Refinery

10,000

SOC

Tobruk Refinery

20,000

Agoco

Sarir Refinery

10,000

Agoco

Notes:

1. Amounts in barrels per day.

Diversification

Libyan five-dinar bill.

In 2007, mining and hydrocarbon industries accounted for well over 95 per cent of the Libyan economy. Diversification of the economy into manufacturing industries remain a long-term issue.

Although agriculture is the second-largest sector in the economy, Libya depends on imports in most foods. Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit farm output, and domestic food production meets only about 25% of demand. Domestic conditions limit output, while higher incomes and a growing population have caused food consumption to rise. Because of low rainfall levels in Libya, agricultural projects such as the Al Khufrah Oasis rely on underground water sources. Libya's primary agricultural water source remains the Great Manmade River (GMMR), but significant resources are being invested in desalinization research to meet growing demand. Libyan agricultural projects and policies are overseen by a General Inspector; there is no Ministry of Agriculture, per se.

Labor market

Libya posted a 3.3% rate of population growth during 1960-2003. In 2003, 86% of the population was urban, compared to 45% in 1970. Although no reliable estimates are available, unemployment is reportedly acute. Over 50% of the population under the age of 20. Moreover, despite the bias of labor market regulations favoring Libyan workers, the mismatch of the educational system with market demand has produced a large pool of expatriate workers, with typically better-suited education and higher productivity. However, because of shortages for manual labor, Libya has also attracted important numbers of less skilled immigrants. Expatriate workers represent an estimated fifth of the labor force. Although significant, the proportion of expatriate workers is still bellow oil producing countries in the Persian Gulf. Foreign workers mainly come from the Maghreb, Egypt, Turkey, India, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Poland, Chad, Sudan, and Bosnia and Herzegovina . They tend to earn relatively high wages, taking either skilled or hard manual jobs. Census data for 2000 show the share of expatriates earning over LD 300 (US$230),???? per month was 20%, compared to 12% for Libyan nationals. A campaign encouraging conversion of qualified civil servants to entrepreneurs, in the face of public sector over employment and declining productivity, does not seem to be producing the desired results thus far.

External trade and finance

Libyan exports in 2006

The Government is in the process of preparing a financial sector reform program. Recent legislation setting corporate governance standards for financial institutions makes progress towards better management and greater operational independence of public banks. However, Libyan public banks still lack management structures supported by skills in critical areas like credit, investment, risk management, and information and control systems. The new banking law reinforces the independence of the Central Bank of Libya (CBL) and offers a legal framework for regulating banking activities, even if some provisions call for improvement. Despite progress brought by the new banking Law that specifies and limits its duties and responsibilities, the CBL remains the owner of the public banks, with the associated potential conflict of interest between ownership and regulation.

Financial sector reform has also progressed with partial interest rate liberalization. Interest rates have been liberalized on deposits, while a lending rate ceiling has been set above the discount rate. The Libyan Stock Exchange, established in 2007, is the first exchange of its kind in the country.

Statistics

Household income or consumption by percentage share:

lowest 11%: NA%

highest 10%: NA%

Industrial production growth rate: NA%

Electricity - production: 14.4 billion kWh (2003)

Electricity - production by source:

fossil fuel: 100%

hydro: 0%

nuclear: 0%

other: 0% (1998)

Electricity - consumption: 13.39 billion kWh (2003)

Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2003)

Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2003)

Agriculture - products: wheat, barley, olives, dates, citrus, vegetables, peanuts, soybeans, cattle, corn

International rankings

Organisation

Survey

Ranking

Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal

2006 Index of Economic Freedom

152 out of 157

The Economist

The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005

70 out of 111

Energy Information Administration

Greatest Oil Reserves by Country, 2006

9 out of 20

Reporters Without Borders

Press Freedom Index (2007)

155 out of 169

Transparency International

Corruption Perceptions Index 2007

131 out of 180

United Nations Development Programme

Human Development Index 2005

58 out of 177

Notes

^ Oil and Gas Journal, 2007

^ a b World Bank 2006

^ International Crude Oil Market Handbook

^ EIA 2007

^ EIA 2007 p.3

^ Doing Business In LIBYA: A Country Commercial Guide for U.S. Companies, March, 2006

^ Although, in the absence of a labor force survey, estimates are surrounded by considerable uncertainty

^ http://www.seenews.com/news/latestnews/bosnia_senergoinvestsees2007profitunchanging_signscontractsinlibya_-151444/ Bosnia's Energoinvest Sees 2007 Profit Flat, Signs Contracts in Libya, Algeria

^ http://www.arabianbusiness.com/506991-bosnian-firm-clinches-52mn-libya-deal?ln=en Bosnian firm clinches $52mn Libya deal

References

Energy Information Administration (2007) Libya: Country Analysis Brief

World Bank (2006), Libya: Economic Report, Social & Economic Development Group

P. Mobbs (2002) Mineral Industry of Libya

T. Ahlbrandt (2001) Sirte Basin Province: Sirte-Zelten Total Petroleum System USGS

Central Bank Of Libya Economic Bulletin Socialist People Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

National Authority for Information and Statistics, Socialist People Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.

Pilat D., Innovation and Productivity in Services - State of the Art, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Directorate for Science, Technology, and Industry, Paris. 2000

GSPLA. Agriculture achievements in 20 years. Secretariat of Agriculture Land Reclamation and Animal Wealth. 1989

GSPLA. Agriculture in Libya. Facts and Figure 1970.

Mohamed Al Genedal. Agriculture in Libya. Arab Book Publishers 1978.

Ali Rahuma. Cost of barley and wheat production in some state managed agricultural projects. J. Agric. Res. 1989

Future of food economics in the Arab State. Vol. 4. Statistics. 1979.

Statistical index 1970. Ministry of Economic and Planning.

External links

Economy of Libya at the Open Directory Project

Libya Economy Review

Tax Articles, Libya Tax System At A Glance

Libya Connected - Business in Libya

v  d  e

 Libya topics

History

Politics

Italo-Turkish War  Coptic Orthodoxy  Libyan Jewish population  Prime Minister  General People's Congress  Heads of Government  Heads of State

Geography

Economy

Districts  Cities  Mediterranean Sea  Transport  Communications  Demographics  Companies  Great Manmade River Health 

Culture

Indigenous religion  Music  Literature  Scouts and Girl Guides  Sport (National football team  National futsal team  Libya 2014   Rugby)  Public holidays

Languages

Arabic  Tamahaq  Berber  Tebu

v  d  e

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

Algeria  Angola  Ecuador  Iran  Iraq  Kuwait  Libya  Nigeria  Qatar  Saudi Arabia  United Arab Emirates  Venezuela

v  d  e

Economy of Africa

Sovereign

states

Algeria  Angola  Benin  Botswana  Burkina Faso  Burundi  Cameroon  Cape Verde  Central African Republic  Chad  Comoros  Democratic Republic of the Congo  Republic of the Congo  Cte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)  Djibouti  Egypt1  Equatorial Guinea  Eritrea  Ethiopia  Gabon  The Gambia  Ghana  Guinea  Guinea-Bissau  Kenya  Lesotho  Liberia  Libya  Madagascar  Malawi  Mali  Mauritania  Mauritius  Morocco  Mozambique  Namibia  Niger  Nigeria  Rwanda  So Tom and Prncipe  Senegal  Seychelles  Sierra Leone  Somalia  South Africa  Sudan  Swaziland  Tanzania  Togo  Tunisia  Uganda  Zambia  Zimbabwe

States with limited

recognition

Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic  Somaliland

Dependencies,

autonomies,

other territories

Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla / Plazas de soberana (Spain)  Madeira (Portugal)  Mayotte / Runion (France)  Puntland (Somalia)  Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom)  Southern Sudan (Sudan)  Zanzibar (Tanzania)

1 Transcontinental country.

Categories: Economy of Libya | African Union member economies | OPEC

Arctic Cat

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Snowmobiles

Arctic Cat, also known as "snow cats", is best known for their series of ZR snowmobile models which utilized two stroke motors in the early to late 1990s. Most ZR's and ZL's were replaced in 2003 by the Firecat series, derived from their 2002 championship sled. It was derived from the "Skinny Mini" prototype sled. The prototype sled had features different from other sleds at that time, by utilizing parts that provided more than one role and a track that was had less width then other sleds, reducing rotating mass. These sleds featured a laydown type engine, which was centered low in the sled to centralize mass. Well known sleds of this time include the Arctic Cat Firecat F7, a 700cc two stroke with 140 horsepower. High speeds were possible with this sled because of the efficiency of the chassis due in part to the smaller width of the track. Big changes were made to the lineup for the 2007 model year a new chassis was introduced which was called a twin-spar chassis replacing all previous models while added a new 4 stroke engine, the Z1 Jaguar. It featured a 1100cc 4-stroke parallel twin. In 2009 the Z1 was turbocharged to produce 177 horsepower (132 kW), which is 20 horsepower (15 kW) more than any other production snowmobile. The Crossfire and M-series remain on the same M-series chassis which is a spinoff from the original Firecat Chassis.

All Terrain vehicles clip badge holder

Arctic Cat also manufactures a wide range of sport and utility ATVs (all terrain vehicles). The engines range in size from 90 cc to 950 cc, with 650 cc H1, 700 cc H1, and 951 cc H2 engines being produced in Arctic's own facility. The 951 cc engine makes it the biggest ATV yet. Arctic Cat has also introduced a new 686 cc two-cylinder, the SOHC 4-stroke diesel engine. All other current gasoline engines are supplied by Suzuki and diesel engines by Lombardini. Arctic Cat ATVs all feature four stroke engines and full independent suspension without a sway bar - excluding DVX, youth and 300 sized models. Arctic cat also has a mud competition ready ATV dubbed the "MudPro". These quads come with Maxxis Mudzilla tires and a built in snorkel for improved air intake in deep mud. These quads come in 650, 700 and 1000cc models. plastic badge holder

Personal Water Craft magnetic badge holders

In the early 90's Arctic Cat started producing a wide range of Personal Water Crafts. This new line of products was given the name 'Tigershark'. Production began in 1993 and ceased in 1999. There were 3 different engine sizes available all made by Suzuki; an 85hp 639cc 2-Stroke 2 Cylinder, a 769cc 2 cylinder 2-Stroke and a monsterous 130hp 1000cc 3-cylinder 2 stroke engine. There were several different models available ranging from 1 to 3 rider capacity.

Barracuda Series (1993 - 1995)

The barracuda series was introduced in 1993. This was there entry level PWC that used an oil injected 639cc 2-Stroke 2-Cylinder engine with 85hp. It was constructed of a one piece fiber-glass flat-bottomed hull. It was capable of carying only one passenger with a maximum capacity of 185 lbs. The flat-bottomed hull allowed for minimal drag and quick responsiveness but required a lot of effort to dig into turns and was not very stable at low speeds. The dry weight was kept to a minimal 300lbs and allowed for a top speed of 45Mph. Features include an on the fly electronic adjustable trim and electronic bilge pump.

Daytona Series (1993 - 1997)

Introduced in 1993, this was the more popular model capable of carrying 3 riders, this hull is much larger than the smaller barracuda. The power plant was either a 769cc 2 clyinder 2 stroke engine or a 1000cc 2-stroke 3-cylinder engine.

Monte Carlo Series (1994 - 1997)

Available with all the engines - 640, 770, and 1000

Montego Series (1994 - 1997)

Basically and upgraded version on the Barracuda. Upgrades include a speedometer...

See also

Bombardier

Logan Machine Company

Moto-Ski

Snowmobiles

Snowmobile skipping

Snowcat

Thiokol

Snow Trac

Sno-Cat

Snow coach

Vintage snowmobiling

skiroule

References

^ "Company Profile for Arctic Cat Inc (ACAT)". http://www.zenobank.com/index.php?symbol=ACAT&page=quotesearch. Retrieved 2008-10-21. 

^ http://www.supertraxmag.com/article.asp?nid=1100

External links

Arctic Cat

Arctic Cat Prowler Forum & Owners Community

Categories: Companies listed on NASDAQ | Tracked vehicles | Snowmobiles | Companies based in Minnesota | Transportation in the ArcticHidden categories: Articles with a promotional tone from July 2009 | All articles with a promotional tone | Articles which may contain unencyclopedic material | Accuracy disputes from July 2009

Curcumin

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Chemistry

Curcumin incorporates several functional groups. The aromatic ring systems, which are polyphenols are connected by two ,-unsaturated carbonyl groups. The two carbonyl groups form a diketone. The diketone form stable enols or are easily deprotonated and form enolates, while the ,-unsaturated carbonyl is a good Michael acceptor and undergoes nucleophilic addition. The structure was first identified in 1910 by Kazimierz Kostanecki, J. Miobdzka and Wiktor Lampe.

Curcumin is used as a reagent for Boron in EPA Method 212.3 Boron by Colorimetry. carnauba wax

Biosynthesis paraffin wax refills

The biosynthetic route of curcumin has proven to be very difficult for researchers to determine. In 1973 Roughly and Whiting proposed two mechanisms for curcumin biosynthesis. The first mechanism involved a chain extension reaction by cinnamic acid and 5 malonyl-CoA molecules that eventually arylized into a curcuminoid. The second mechanism involved two cinnamate units being coupled together by malonyl-CoA.16 Both mechanisms utilize cinnamic acid as their starting point, which is derived from the amino acid phenylalanine. This is noteworthy because plant biosyntheses employing cinnamic acid as a starting point are rare compared to the more common use of p-coumaric acid. . Only a few identified compounds, such as anigorufone and pinosylvin, use cinnamic acid as their start molecule. It wasn until 2008 in which an experimentally backed route was presented. This proposed biosynthetic route follows both the first and second mechanisms suggested by Roughley and Whiting. However, the labeling data supported the first mechanism model in which 5 malonyl-CoA molecules react with cinnamic acid to form curcumin. However, the sequencing in which the functional groups, the alcohol and the methoxy, introduce themselves onto the curcuminoid seems to support more strongly the second proposed mechanism. Therefore it was concluded that the second pathway proposed by Roughly and Whiting was correct. liquid paraffin oil

Biosynthetic pathway of curcumin in Curcuma longa.

Potential medical uses

Turmeric has been used historically as a component of Indian Ayurvedic medicine since 1900 BCE to treat a wide variety of ailments. Research in the latter half of the 20th century has identified curcumin as responsible for most of the biological activity of turmeric. In vitro and animal studies have suggested a wide range of potential therapeutic or preventive effects associated with curcumin. At present, these effects have not been confirmed in humans. However, as of 2008, numerous clinical trials in humans were underway, studying the effect of curcumin on numerous diseases including multiple myeloma, pancreatic cancer, myelodysplastic syndromes, colon cancer, psoriasis, and Alzheimer's disease.

In vitro and animal studies have suggested that curcumin may have antitumor, antioxidant, antiarthritic, anti-amyloid, anti-ischemic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Anti-inflammatory properties may be due to inhibition of eicosanoid biosynthesis. In addition it may be effective in treating malaria, prevention of cervical cancer, and may interfere with the replication of the HIV virus. In HIV, it appears to act by interfering with P300/CREB-binding protein (CBP). It is also hepatoprotective. A 2008 study at Michigan State University showed that low concentrations of curcumin interfere with Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) replication. The same study showed that curcumin inhibited the recruitment of RNA polymerase II to viral DNA, thus inhibiting the transcription of the viral DNA. This effect was shown to be independent of effect on histone acetyltransferase activities of p300/CBP. A previous (1999) study performed at University of Cincinnati indicated that curcumin is significantly associated with protection from infection by HSV-2 in animal models of intravaginal infections.

Curcumin acts as a free radical scavenger and antioxidant, inhibiting lipid peroxidation and oxidative DNA damage. Curcuminoids induce glutathione S-transferase and are potent inhibitors of cytochrome P450.

A 2004 UCLA-Veterans Affairs study involving genetically altered mice suggests that curcumin might inhibit the accumulation of destructive beta-amyloid in the brains of Alzheimer's disease patients and also break up existing plaques associated with the disease.

There is also circumstantial evidence that curcumin improves mental functions; a survey of 1010 Asian people who ate yellow curry and were between the ages of 60 and 93 showed that those who ate the sauce "once every six months" or more had higher MMSE results than those who did not. From a scientific standpoint, though, this does not show whether the curry caused it, or people who had healthy habits also tended to eat the curry, or some completely different relationship.

Numerous studies have demonstrated that curcumin, amongst only a few other things such as high impact exercise, learning, bright light, and antidepressant usage, has a positive effect on neurogenesis in the hippocampus and concentrations of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), reductions in both of which are associated with stress, depression, and anxiety.

Curcumin has also been demonstrated to be a selective monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) of type MAO-A.

In 2009 an Iranian group demonstrated the combination effect of curcumin with 24 antibiotics against Staphylococcus aureus.It is showed that in the presence of sub-inhibitory concentration of curcumin the antibacterial activities of cefixime, cefotaxime, vancomycin and tetracycline have been increased against test strain. Increase in inhibition zone surface area for these antibiotics were 52.6% (cefixime), 24.9% (cephotaxime), 26.5% (vancomycin ), 24.4% (tetracycline). Also it is showed that curcumin has the antagonist effect on the antibacterial effect of Nalidixic acid against test strain.

Although many pre-clinical studies suggest that curcumin may be useful for the prevention and treatment of several diseases, the effectiveness of curcumin has not yet been demonstrated in randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trials.

Anticarcinogenic effects

Its potential anticancer effects stem from its ability to induce apoptosis in cancer cells without cytotoxic effects on healthy cells. Curcumin can interfere with the activity of the transcription factor NF-B, which has been linked to a number of inflammatory diseases such as cancer.

A 2009 study suggests that curcumin may inhibit mTOR complex I via a novel mechanism.

Another 2009 study on curcumin effects on cancer states that curcumin "modulates growth of tumor cells through regulation of multiple cell signaling pathways including cell proliferation pathway (cyclin D1, c-myc), cell survival pathway (Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, cFLIP, XIAP, c-IAP1), caspase activation pathway (caspase-8, 3, 9), tumor suppressor pathway (p53, p21) death receptor pathway (DR4, DR5), mitochondrial pathways, and protein kinase pathway (JNK, Akt, and AMPK)".

When 0.2% curcumin is added to diet given to rats or mice previously given a carcinogen, it significantly reduces colon carcinogenesis (Data from sixteen scientific articles reported in the Chemoprevention Database).

Bioavailability

Little curcumin, when eaten, is absorbed: from 2 to 10 grams of curcumin eaten alone resulted in indetectable to very low serum levels. Curcumin is unstable in the gut[citation needed], and the traces that pass through the GI tract rapidly degrade or are conjugated through glucuronidation.

Incorporating turmeric into the western diet poses challenges. A majority of Americans equate the mild-flavored turmeric with spicy Indian food. Most recipes incorporating turmeric, such as curries, are too spicy for many Americans because they contain hot spices such as cayenne pepper. There have been several commercial products developed to provide an alternate route to curcumin. For example, curcumin supplements with piperine are readily available. But curcumin in a non-solubilized pill form can limit bioavailability. Other products, such as Nutmeric, provide curcumin in an oil-solubilized form similar to Indian curry preparations. Co-supplementation with 20 mg of piperine (extracted from black pepper) significantly increased the absorption of curcumin by 2000% in a study funded by a prominent manufacturer of piperine. However, the increase in absorption only occurred during the first hour, after which the difference between the piperine curcumin and the regular curcumin was almost the same as far as absorption. Due to its effects on drug metabolism, piperine should be taken cautiously (if at all) by individuals taking other medications.

Some benefits of curcumin, such as the potential protection from colon cancer, may not require systemic absorption. Alternatively, dissolving curcumin in hot water or in warm oils prior to ingestion may possibly increase bioavailability; however, no published studies to date have documented this. Cooking with curcumin and oil may increase absorption, but peer-reviewed scientific literature has not documented this, while the literature has documented concerns regarding the heat stability of curcumin and its degradation in the gut.[citation needed]

In 2007, a polymeric nanoparticle-encapsulated formulation of curcumin ("nanocurcumin") has been synthesized which has the potential to bypass many of the shortcomings associated with free curcumin, such as poor solubility and poor systemic bioavailability. Nanocurcumin particles have a size of less than 100 nanometers on average, and demonstrate comparable to superior efficacy compared to free curcumin in human cancer cell line models. However, actual in vivo absorption has not been demonstrated with this nanoparticle.

In July 2008, researchers from the aforementioned team in UCLA's Department of Neurology announced results on a form of "lipidated curcumin" that was noted to achieve more than 5 micromolar in the brain in vivo, 50 times that found in clinical studies. Another method to increase the bioavailability of curcumin was filed in a patent in 2006 and involves a simple procedure creating a complex with soy phospholipids; the plasma concentration of curcumin using this method increased by 5-fold reaching 33.4 nanomolar in comparison to 6.5 nanomolar obtained with an equal molar quantity of unformulated curcumin administered as control.

Potential risks and side-effects

Kawanishi et al. (2005) remarked that curcumin, like many antioxidants, can be a "double-edged sword" where in the test tube, anti-cancer and antioxidant effects may be seen in addition to pro-oxidant effects. Carcinogenic effects are inferred from interference with the p53 tumor suppressor pathway, an important factor in human colon cancer. Carcinogenic and LD50 tests in mice and rats, however, have failed to establish a relationship between tumorogenesis and administration of curcumin in turmeric oleoresin at >98% concentrations. Other in vitro and in vivo studies suggest that curcumin may cause carcinogenic effects under specific conditions.

In animal studies, hair loss (alopecia) and lowering of blood pressure have been reported.

Clinical studies in humans with high doses (212 grams) of curcumin have shown few side effects, with some subjects reporting mild nausea or diarrhea. More recently, curcumin was found to alter iron metabolism by chelating iron and suppressing the protein hepcidin, potentially causing iron deficiency in susceptible patients. Further studies seem to be necessary to establish the benefit/risk profile of curcumin.

There is no or little evidence to suggest that curcumin is either safe or unsafe for pregnant women. However, there is still some concern that medicinal use of products containing curcumin could stimulate the uterus, which may lead to a miscarriage, although there is not much evidence to support this claim. According to experiments done on rats and guinea-pigs, there is no obvious effect (neither positive, nor negative) on the pregnancy rate, number of live or dead embryos.

References

Notes

^ Kolev, Tsonko M.; et al. (2005). "DFT and Experimental Studies of the Structure and Vibrational Spectra of Curcumin". International Journal of Quantum Chemistry (Wiley Periodicals) 102 (6): 106979. doi:10.1002/qua.20469. 

^ Food Standards Australia New Zealand. "Food Additives- Numerical List". http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/newsroom/publications/choosingtherightstuff/foodadditivesnumeric1680.cfm. Retrieved 2 December 2009. 

^ Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes (MCAWW) (EPA/600/4-79/020)

^ a b c d Kita, T.; Imai, S.; Sawada, H.; Kumagai, H.; Seto, H. The biosynthetic pathway of curcuminoid in turmeric (Curcuma longa) as revealed by 13C-labeled precursors. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry 2008, 72, 1789-1798.

^ Schmitt, B.; Holscher, D.; Schneider, B. Variability of phenylpropanoid precursors in the biosynthesis of phenylphenalenones in Anigozanthos preissii. Phytochemistry 2000, 53, 331-337.

^ Gehlert, R.; Schoeppner, A.; Kindl, H. Stilbene synthase from seedlings of Pinus sylvestris: purification and induction in response to fungal infection. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 1990, 3, 444-449.

^ a b Aggarwal BB, Sundaram C, Malani N, Ichikawa H (2007). "Curcumin: the Indian solid gold". Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 595: 175. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-46401-5_1. PMID 17569205. 

^ Hatcher H, Planalp R, Cho J, Torti FM, Torti SV (June 2008). "Curcumin: from ancient medicine to current clinical trials". Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 65 (11): 163152. doi:10.1007/s00018-008-7452-4. PMID 18324353. 

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External links

Turmeric and curcumin, from Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center

Turmeric and curcumin, from M.D. Anderson Cancer Center

Turmeric, from the University of Maryland Medical Center

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